cdxs-20221231

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)


☒			ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the fiscal year ended: December 31, 2022


☐			TRANSITION REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the transition period from to .

Commission File No.: 001-34705

Codexis, Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)


Delaware						71-0872999
(State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization)						(I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)

200 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, California						94063
(Address of principal executive offices)						(Zip Code)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (650) 421-8100

Securities Registered Pursuant to Section 12(b) of the A:


Title of Each Class:	Trading Symbols(s):	Name of Each Exchange on which Registered:
Common Stock, par value $0.0001 per share	CDXS	The Nasdaq Global Select Market
Securities Registered Pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.

Yes

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Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act.

Yes

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.

Yes

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).

Yes

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or emerging growth company. See the definitions of "large accelerated filer, "accelerated filer" and "smaller reporting company," and "emerging growth company" in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act:

Large accelerated filer

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Accelerated filer

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Non-accelerated filer

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Smaller reporting company

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Emerging growth company

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If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act.

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C.7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☒

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of
incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to §240.10D-1(b). ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Act).

Yes

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The aggregate market value of voting and non-voting common stock held by non-affiliates of Codexis as of June 30, 2022 was approximately $383.8 million based upon the closing price reported for such date on the Nasdaq Global Select Market.

As of February 22, 2023, there were 65,946,807 shares of the registrant’s Common Stock, par value $0.0001 per share, outstanding.

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DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

Portions of the registrant’s Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the Commission pursuant to Regulation 14A in connection with the registrant’s 2023 Annual Meeting of Stockholders (the "Proxy Statement"), to be filed subsequent to the date hereof, are incorporated by reference into Part III of this Report. Such Definitive Proxy Statement will be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission not later than 120 days after the conclusion of the registrant’s fiscal year ended December 31, 2022. Except with respect to information specifically incorporated by reference in this Form 10-K, the Proxy Statement is not deemed to be filed as part of this Form 10-K.

Codexis, Inc.

Annual Report on Form 10-K

For The Year Ended December 31, 2022


INDEX

PART I
Item 1	Business	4
Item 1A	Risk Factors	24
Item 1B	Unresolved Staff Comments	60
Item 2	Properties	60
Item 3	Legal Proceedings	60
Item 4	Mine Safety Disclosures	60
PART II
Item 5	Market for Registrant's Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities	61
Item 6	[Reserved]	62
Item 7	Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	63
Item 7A	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk	78
Item 8	Financial Statements and Supplementary Data	79
Item 9	Changes in and Disagreements with Accountants on Accounting and Financial Disclosures	123
Item 9A	Controls and Procedures	123
Item 9B	Other Information	124
Item 9C	Disclosure Regarding Foreign Jurisdictions that Prevent Inspections	124
PART III
Item 10	Directors, Executive Officers and Corporate Governance	124
Item 11	Executive Compensation	124
Item 12	Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Owners and Management and Related Stockholder Matters	124
Item 13	Certain Relationships and Related Transactions, and Director Independence	124
Item 14	Principal Accounting Fees and Services	125
PART IV
Item 15	Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules	126
Item 16	Form 10-K Summary	132
	Signatures	133

SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with our audited Consolidated Financial Statements and the related Notes that appear elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains "forward-looking statements" within the meaning of Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended ("the Exchange Act"), particularly in Part I, Item 1: "Business," Part I, Item 1A: "Risk Factors" and Part 2, Item 7: "Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations." These statements are often identified by the use of words such as "may," "will," "expect," "believe," "anticipate," "intend," "could," "should," "estimate" or "continue," and similar expressions or variations. All statements other than statements of historical fact could be deemed forward-looking, including, but not limited to: any projections of financial information or performance; any statements about historical results that may suggest trends for our business; any statements of the plans, strategies, and objectives of management for future operations; any statements of expectation or belief regarding future events, technology developments, our products and product candidates, product sales, revenues, expenses, liquidity, cash flow, market growth rates or enforceability of our intellectual property rights and related litigation expenses; and any statements of assumptions underlying any of the foregoing. Such forward-looking statements are subject to risks, uncertainties and other factors that could cause actual results and the timing of certain events to differ materially from future results expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. Accordingly, we caution you not to place undue reliance on these statements. For a discussion of some of the factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from our forward-looking statements, see the discussion on risk factors that appear in Part I, Item 1A: "Risk Factors" of this Annual Report on Form 10-K and other risks and uncertainties detailed in this and our other reports and filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission ("SEC"). The forward-looking statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K represent our views as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. We anticipate that subsequent events and developments will cause our views to change. However, while we may elect to update these forward-looking statements at some point in the future, we have no current intention of doing so except to the extent required by applicable law. You should, therefore, not rely on these forward-looking statements as representing our views as of any date subsequent to the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

PART I

ITEM 1. BUSINESS

COMPANY OVERVIEW

We are a leading enzyme engineering company leveraging our proprietary CodeEvolver® technology platform to discover, develop and enhance novel, high performance enzymes and other classes of proteins. Enzymes are naturally occurring biological molecules critical to almost all biochemical reactions that sustain life. They can be precisely engineered and optimized for specific functions, and to have particular characteristics, such as an ability to survive environments in which natural enzymes cannot, or to perform (bio)chemical transformations different than those for which they naturally evolved. The capacity to enhance the properties and performance of enzymes has led to pivotal improvements across three healthcare industry pillars: pharmaceutical manufacturing, life sciences, and biotherapeutics. The enzymes we produce solve for real-world challenges associated with small molecule pharmaceuticals manufacturing, nucleic acid synthesis and genomic sequencing, and – as biotherapeutic candidates – they have the potential to treat challenging diseases. Our unique enzymes drive improvements such as higher yields, reduced energy usage and waste generation, improved efficiency in manufacturing, greater sensitivity in genomic and diagnostic applications, and potentially more efficacious therapeutics.

Our novel biotherapeutics business includes a diverse pipeline of product candidates in clinical and preclinical development. Our initial biotherapeutic product candidates include enzymes that are orally administered for function in the gastrointestinal tract (“GI”), such as our partnered product candidates CDX-7108 for the treatment of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and CDX-6114 for the treatment of phenylketonuria, which are both in Phase 1 clinical trials. We have also engineered a series of transgenes that code for enzymes that may be used as gene therapies to treat rare lysosomal storage disorders with our partner Takeda, such as Fabry Disease and Pompe Disease, as well as a blood factor disorder.

Our performance enzymes business consists primarily of two focus areas: i) biocatalysts for the sustainable manufacturing of pharmaceuticals and ii) enzymes for life science applications, including genomic sequencing and nucleic acid synthesis. In our pharmaceutical manufacturing business, we utilize our CodeEvolver® platform to develop optimized enzymes that are used by some of the world’s largest pharmaceutical companies to reduce their costs and improve the efficiency and productivity of their manufacturing processes for some small molecule therapeutics. In life science markets, we use our platform technology to develop enzymes for customers using next generation sequencing (“NGS”), a parallel sequencing technology used to identify genomic information in the study of biological systems, and PCR/qPCR for in vitro molecular diagnostic and molecular biology research applications, as well as for synthesis of nucleic acids such as DNA/RNA.

History and Core Technology

We are a pioneer in harnessing computational technologies to drive biology advancements. Since 2002, we have made substantial investments in the development of our proprietary CodeEvolver® technology platform, the primary source of our competitive advantage for both our performance enzymes and biotherapeutics businesses. The CodeEvolver® platform has the power to transform the performance of an enzyme, tailoring it for a specific application and/or process. Using powerful machine learning tools and sophisticated molecular, cellular, and bioanalytical workflows, we design and screen libraries of thousands of variants in high throughput every two to four weeks on each project, sequencing every variant and correlating its sequence with its performance in a highly application-relevant screen. Content-rich libraries screened under real-world conditions can yield dense and valuable datasets, when data-mined effectively, and multiple parameters can be optimized in parallel. The resulting evolved variants often have a combination of enhanced properties, such as increased activity, specificity, and stability under desired conditions, or improved expression in the production host. These enhanced properties provide differentiated technical performance in the target application and can provide our customers increased value in the commercial deployment of their products.

Novel Biotherapeutics

We are developing a diverse pipeline of product candidates in our novel biotherapeutics business. These product candidates, which are in clinical and preclinical development, range from orally delivered enzymes to engineered transgenes for delivery as gene therapies that have the potential to address a range of diseases with high unmet patient need. Each of our product candidates is discovered utilizing our proprietary CodeEvolver® protein engineering platform.

Our Partnered Oral Enzyme Programs

CDX-7108 for the treatment of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

Under a Strategic Collaboration Agreement with Nestlé Health Science (“Nestlé SCA”), we have collaboratively developed CDX-7108, a potent lipase intended for use as a pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (“PERT”). PERT is used to treat pancreatic exocrine insufficiency. There are multiple causes of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency including chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis and pancreatic cancer. We estimate there are approximately 190,000 patients in the United States and the market for current therapies is greater than $2.5 billion globally. Although existing therapies are reasonably effective at delivering amylase and protease activity, achieving adequate levels of lipase activity is challenging due to patient compliance and pill burden often leading patients to experience continued symptoms associated with fat malabsorption. CDX-7108 has been specifically engineered for increased potency as a lipase and also to remain stable in acidic conditions such as those encountered in the stomach. The goal is to study whether this combination of properties will deliver adequate lipase activity with a less burdensome dosing schedule. Under the Nestlé SCA, we and Nestlé Health Science are also working on the development of engineered amylase and protease enzymes for possible use with CDX-7108. Nestlé Health Science is currently dosing patients in a Phase 1b three-party study. The first two parts of the study evaluated the safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics (“PK”) of escalating single and multiple oral doses of CDX-7108 in 48 healthy adult subjects, with no safety issues noted. The third part of the study is evaluating the pharmacodynamics of a single dose of oral CDX-7108 in six enrolled patients with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (“EPI”). An interim analysis conducted in January 2023 of five patients who had completed the study at the time showed a clear indication of improved lipid absorption when patients are administered CDX-7108 versus placebo, which we believe supports a path forward together with Nestlé Health Science to further develop CDX-7108, with the potential for the initiation of a Phase 2 study in early 2024.

CDX-6114 for the treatment of phenylketonuria

We internally developed CDX-6114, an enzyme we engineered to be orally administrated for the treatment of phenylketonuria (“PKU”) in humans. PKU, one of the most common inborn errors of metabolism (“IEMs”), is a metabolic disorder in which the enzyme that converts the essential amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine is deficient. As a result, phenylalanine accumulates to toxic levels in the brain, causing serious neurological problems including intellectual disability, seizures and cognitive and behavioral problems. To avoid toxic levels of phenylalanine in their blood, individuals with PKU must follow a strict, life-long diet that is low in phenylalanine and supplement their diet with a synthetic phenylalanine-free protein supplements to provide them with sufficient nutrients. Maintaining a strict, life-long diet can be challenging for individuals with PKU. There are an estimated 50,000 patients with PKU in the developed world.

We have partnered with Nestlé Health Science under a Global Development, Option and License Agreement (“Nestlé License Agreement”) to further develop CDX-6114. In February 2019, Nestlé Health Science exercised its option under the Nestlé License Agreement to obtain an exclusive license to develop and commercialize CDX-6114. Nestlé Health Science is currently optimizing the formulation of CDX-6114 to improve performance and we expect Nestlé Health Science to announce an IND filing and clinical trial initiation in 2023. If this collaboration can successfully demonstrate benefit in PKU patients with CDX-6114, this will inform our decisions around the oral enzyme approach to several other IEMs.

Our Wholly-owned Oral Enzyme Programs

In the past we have also worked on internal programs to develop orally administrable enzyme substitution therapy candidates for the treatment of homocystinuria (“HCU”) and Maple Syrup Urine Disease (“MSUD”), that we are now considering partnering options for pursuing further development. In addition, we have a program to develop orally administrable enzyme substitution therapy candidates for the treatment of Celiac Disease (“CD”).

Gene Therapy

We have also used CodeEvolver® to engineer transgenes that encode for enzymes which may improve targeting and expression within the body when administered as gene therapies, offering potentially improved therapeutic benefit as compared to current options.

Our Partnered Gene Therapy Programs

Our first significant program involving engineered transgenes commenced in March 2020 when we entered into a Strategic Collaboration and License Agreement (“Takeda Agreement”) with Shire Human Genetic Therapies, Inc., a wholly-owned subsidiary of Takeda Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. (“Takeda”) pursuant to which we are collaborating to research and develop transgenes for use in gene therapy delivery technology for rare lysosomal storage disorders such as Fabry Disease, Pompe Disease, a blood factor disorder, and another lysosomal storage disorder. In March 2020, we received a one-time, non-refundable cash payment of $8.5 million. Of these programs, the Fabry disease program is the most advanced, with a lead candidate identified in investigational new drug ("IND") enabling activities. We have also provided sequences to Takeda for the Pompe program and await updates on preclinical testing and potential IND enabling activities. In May 2021, Takeda elected to exercise their option to initiate an additional program for a certain undisclosed rare genetic disorder and we received the option exercise fee during the third quarter of 2021.

In addition to our partnered gene therapy programs, we continue to explore the possible application of our CodeEvolver® technology to develop therapeutic options for devastating diseases as well as to develop and test our own proprietary gene therapy delivery mechanisms.

Performance Enzymes

Our performance enzymes business consists primarily of two focus areas, pharmaceutical manufacturing and life science products.

Pharmaceutical Manufacturing

We believe the pharmaceutical industry represents a significant market opportunity for our performance enzymes as pharmaceutical companies are in constant search of new drugs to offer to their customers and are under significant competitive pressure both to reduce costs and to increase the speed to market for their products. To address these pressures, pharmaceutical companies are driven to identify reliable, cost effective and sustainable manufacturing processes to produce both their new drug candidates and their existing products, while not impacting drug safety and efficacy. Cost reduction is increasingly important to drug developers (known as innovators) closer to their product launch and during the commercial stage of the product, which can last a decade or more. In addition, cost pressures further intensify as innovators lose their patent exclusivities and begin to experience competition from manufacturers of generic versions of their products.

Our pharmaceutical manufacturing customers, which include many large global pharmaceutical companies, partner with us to develop optimized enzymes for use as biocatalysts, meeting precisely defined criteria, with the goal of lowering costs and improving the efficiency, productivity and sustainability of their manufacturing processes by: improving productivity, yield and purity; using water as a primary solvent; eliminating hazardous inputs; enabling the use of simple equipment and reducing the need for capital expenditure; reducing energy requirements; reducing the generation of chemical byproducts or waste; and reducing the need for late-stage purifications.

As of December 31, 2022, we are selling biocatalysts to pharmaceutical manufacturers for 18 therapeutic drugs that are currently approved for commercial sales.

Of particular note for 2022, in July 2022 we announced that we and Pfizer had entered into an agreement to supply Pfizer with CDX-616, a proprietary high performance enzyme used to manufacture a critical intermediate for nirmatrelvir, an active pharmaceutical ingredient in PAXLOVID™, Pfizer’s antiviral therapeutic, which is currently authorized for emergency use by the FDA for the treatment of mild-to-moderate COVID-19 in people at high risk of progression to severe illness and authorized or approved by other regulatory authorities across the globe. While we have generated significant revenue from supplying CDX-616 to Pfizer, there is no future binding commitment for them to purchase any particular quantity or quantities of CDX-616 from us.

We regularly sell biocatalysts, at multi-kilograms to metric tons per annum scale, that have already been engineered, scaled up, and installed in a customer’s commercial process. For example, in addition to Pfizer, we sell biocatalysts to Merck for their manufacture of sitagliptin, the active ingredient in JANUVIA®, to Urovant and Kyorin for the manufacture of vibregon, the active ingredient in Urovant’s GEMTESA™ and Kyorin’s BEOVA®, products for the treatment of overactive bladder, as well as supporting other products and customers for which public disclosures have not been made.

In addition to these larger volumes of biocatalysts that are sold for our customers’ ongoing commercial requirements, we also sell lesser quantities of enzymes for use in a customer’s developmental, qualification or regulatory approval operations. As of December 31, 2022, 18 drug candidates currently in Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials use enzymes engineered using CodeEvolver® technology (either by Codexis or by our platform licensing partners) in their chemistry, manufacturing and control processes. This pipeline of potential approvals reinforces our confidence in our ability to continue to grow this business over time.

Finally, we also sell even smaller quantities of enzymes (typically grams to multi-kilograms scale) to customers for experimental, testing and qualification purposes, or as part of an enzyme engineering project.

In addition to the sale of biocatalysts, we also offer research and development partnerships to our customers. These research and development activities are typically governed by collaboration agreements, which often contain research fee payments and intellectual property provisions, under which we screen and/or engineer biocatalysts for customers in connection with their process development efforts. In these collaborations, we typically receive consideration in the form of one or more of the following: upfront payments, milestone payments, payments for screening and engineering, with other exclusive supply of enzyme or licensing fees and royalties as the customer’s product commercializes.

We also have licensed our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform to pharmaceutical companies to help them develop custom-designed enzymes that are highly optimized for efficient manufacturing processes. To date, we have entered into platform technology licensing agreements with each of GlaxoSmithKline Intellectual Property Development Limited, a subsidiary of GlaxoSmithKline plc ("GSK"), Merck, Sharp & Dohme ("Merck") and Novartis Pharma AG ("Novartis").

Life Sciences

We also apply our CodeEvolver® technology to develop enzymes for customers using NGS and PCR/qPCR for in vitro molecular diagnostic and molecular biology research applications, as well DNA/RNA synthesis applications. We view these as attractive markets in which Codexis’ technology and products can deliver a strong competitive advantage – in part because manipulation of nucleic acids by enzymes (be it “reading” or “writing”) is at the core of these markets and our technology has the proven ability to create enzymes which are stable to the workflow and/or supply chain demands or – importantly – which are less biased in the nucleic acids they are able to sequence or synthesis, which can be of significant benefit in various applications.

In December 2019, we entered into a license agreement to provide Roche Sequencing Solutions, Inc. ("Roche") with an improved DNA ligase (EvoT4™ DNA ligase) for NGS library prep, which continues to progress towards commercialization in new NGS kits.

In June 2020, we entered into a co-marketing and enzyme supply collaboration agreement with Alphazyme LLC for the production and co-marketing of enzymes for life science applications. Since then, this collaboration has enabled the commercialization of Codex® HiFi DNA Polymerase, Codex® HiFi Hot Start DNA Polymerase, Codex® HiFi Hot Start 2X NGS Mix, Codex® HiCap RNA Polymerase, Codex® HiFi UL DNA Polymerase, and Codex® HiTemp Reverse Transcriptase. Development of other novel enzymes for life science applications continues.

Also, in June 2020, we entered into a Master Collaboration and Research Agreement with Molecular Assemblies, Inc. ("MAI") (the “MAI Agreement”) pursuant to which we are leveraging our CodeEvolver® platform technology to improve the DNA polymerase enzymes that are critical for enzymatic DNA synthesis. At that time, we purchased $1.0 million in MAI’s Series A financing and John Nicols, the Codexis’ then President and CEO, and current director, joined MAI’s board of directors. In April 2021, Codexis invested an additional $0.6 million in MAI’s Series A financing and, in September 2021, Codexis invested an additional $7.0 million in MAI’s Series B financing. As of December 31, 2022, we currently hold 5,443,734 shares of MAI Series A preferred stock and 12,848,635 shares of MAI Series B preferred stock. In April 2022, we and MAI announced that, using our CodeEvolver® platform technology, we had developed a novel, engineered terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (“TdT”) enzyme which would enable MAI’s Fully Enzymatic Synthesis™ (“FES™”) technology that produces highly pure, sequence-specific DNA on demand. In August 2022, we and MAI announced that we had entered into a Commercial License and Enzyme Supply Agreement with MAI (the “MAI Supply Agreement”) under which Codexis shall manufacture and sell the TdT enzyme to MAI for use in native DNA synthesis. In connection with the execution of the MAI Supply Agreement, we received a milestone payment of $1.0 million in the form of an additional 1,587,049 shares of Series B preferred stock pursuant to the MAI Agreement.

In March 2022, we announced the initiation of a strategic partnership with seqWell Inc., a developer of transformative library preparation products for demanding genomics plan application, which included an investment to accelerate the commercialization of seqWell’s genomics workflow solutions. Codexis and seqWell plan to collaborate on using our CodeEvolver® platform technology for enzyme optimization with seqWell’s growing portfolio of genomics workflow and library preparation products. As part of this partnership, we led seqWell’s Series C financing with a $5.0 million investment.

OUR STRATEGY

Our strategy is to grow our revenues, profits, and stockholder value by leveraging our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform in the following ways:

•Creating and advancing novel biotherapeutic drug candidates. We intend to continue to pursue opportunities to apply our protein engineering capabilities to the creation and development of novel biotherapeutic drug candidates. In addition, we intend to extend our biotherapeutics pipeline by developing, with our partner Takeda and developing internally, novel gene therapies and transgene products.

•Growing our pharmaceutical manufacturing business. We intend to continue to pursue opportunities in the pharmaceutical market to use our enzymes to reduce the costs for manufacturing small molecule drugs. We intend to increase the number of pharmaceutical customers and processes that utilize and benefit from our novel, cost-saving enzyme biocatalyst solutions.

•Developing high-performance enzymes for use in life science applications and nucleic acid synthesis. We intend to offer high-performance enzymes to customers using NGS and PCR/qPCR for in vitro molecular diagnostic applications and to enable the future of enzymatic nucleic acid synthesis.

Strategic Collaborations

Biotherapeutics

Nestlé Health Science

In October 2017, we entered into the Nestlé License Agreement with Nestlé Health Science pursuant to which we granted to Nestlé Health Science, under certain of our patent rights and know-how: (i) an option to obtain an exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, sublicensable license to develop and commercialize certain products (each, a “Product”) based on CDX-6114 and our other therapeutic enzyme product candidates covered by specified patent applications for the treatment of hyperphenylalaninaemia (“HPA”) (also referred to as PKU), and (ii) an exclusive right of first negotiation (the “Right of First Negotiation”) for a period of five years to obtain an exclusive worldwide license to develop and commercialize up to two enzymes discovered by us for use in the field of the prevention, diagnosis, treatment and management of inborn errors of amino acid metabolism. We are not under any obligation to undertake any research and development activities relating to inborn errors of amino acid metabolism. HPA is a medical condition characterized by elevated concentrations of the amino acid phenylalanine in the blood. PKU can result in severe HPA.

In February 2019, Nestlé Health Science exercised its option to obtain an exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, sub-licensable license for the global development and commercialization of CDX-6114 for the management of PKU. Upon exercising its option, Nestlé Health Science assumed all responsibilities for future clinical development and commercialization of CDX-6114, with the exception of the completion of an extension study, CDX-6114-004, which was substantially completed in the fourth quarter of 2019. The parties established a patent committee to discuss strategies and coordinate activities for the patents related to CDX-6114 and product containing CDX-6114, and we will jointly own all inventions and information that result from each party’s activities performed under the Nestlé License Agreement. The Nestlé License Agreement also contains customary representations and warranties by the parties, intellectual property protection provisions, certain indemnification rights in favor of each party and customary confidentiality provisions and limitations of liability.

We are also eligible to receive payments from Nestlé Health Science under the Nestlé License Agreement that include (i) development and approval milestones of up to $85.0 million, (ii) sales-based milestones of up to $250.0 million in the aggregate, which aggregate amount is achievable if net sales exceed $1.0 billion in a single year, and (iii) tiered royalties, at percentages ranging from the mid-single digits to low double-digits, of net sales of products.

In October 2017, we entered into the Nestlé SCA pursuant to which we and Nestlé Health Science are collaborating to leverage the CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform to develop novel enzymes for Nestlé Health Science’s established Consumer Care and Medical Nutrition business areas. The term of the Nestlé SCA has been extended through December 2023 with automatic renewal through December 2024.

In January 2020, we entered into the Nestlé development agreement (the “Nestlé DA”) pursuant to which we and Nestlé Health Science are collaborating to advance CDX-7108 into preclinical and early clinical studies. CDX-7108 is the lead candidate discovered under the Nestlé SCA targeting exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. The term of the Nestlé DA has been extended through December 2023 with automatic renewal through December 2024.

Shire Human Genetic Therapies/Takeda Pharmaceutical

In March 2020, we entered into the Takeda Agreement with Takeda pursuant to which we are collaborating to research and develop protein sequences for use in gene therapy products for certain diseases (each, a “Field”) in accordance with each applicable program plan (each, a “Program Plan”). On execution of the Takeda Agreement, we received an upfront nonrefundable cash payment of $8.5 million and we initiated activities under three Program Plans for Fabry Disease, Pompe Disease, and an unnamed blood factor disorder, respectively (the “Initial Programs”). We are primarily responsible for the research and development of protein sequences under the Program Plans (the “Protein Sequences”) and we are eligible to earn up to $10.5 million of research and development fees and preclinical milestone payments for the Initial Programs. We will own all rights to the protein sequences and corresponding nucleic acid sequences and related intellectual property rights and Takeda will own all rights to products and related intellectual property rights. In May 2021, Takeda elected to exercise their option to initiate an additional (fourth) program for a certain undisclosed rare genetic disorder; as a result, we received the option exercise fee during the third quarter of 2021. We are also eligible to receive up to $3.4 million of research and development fees and preclinical milestone payments for the fourth program under the Takeda Agreement.

We granted to Takeda an exclusive, worldwide, royalty-bearing, sublicensable license to use the protein sequences and their corresponding nucleic acid sequences to develop, manufacture and commercialize the applicable products in the applicable Field. We also granted to Takeda a limited non-exclusive, worldwide, sublicensable license (a) to research the protein sequences within or outside the applicable Fields and (b) to research the products outside of the applicable Fields, which such rights exclude Takeda's right to perform any IND-enabling activities. The licenses to research the Protein Sequences expire after a pre-determined period of time.

The term of the Takeda Agreement begins on the effective date of the Takeda Agreement and continues on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis, until the expiration of Takeda’s obligation to pay royalties to the Company with respect to that product in that country. The Takeda Agreement expires in its entirety upon the expiration of Takeda’s obligation to pay royalties to the Company with respect to the products in all countries worldwide. Subject to the terms of the Takeda Agreement, and after the first anniversary of the Effective Date with respect to the Initial Programs or after the first anniversary of confirmation of the applicable Program Plan by the parties with respect to the Additional/Option Programs, Takeda may terminate a Program upon specified prior written notice to the Company. Subject to the terms of the Takeda Agreement, Takeda may terminate the Takeda Agreement, at will, on a product-by-product basis upon specified prior written notice to the Company and the Takeda Agreement in its entirety upon specified prior written notice to the Company. Subject to the terms of the Takeda Agreement, Takeda may terminate the Takeda Agreement on a product-by-product basis for safety reasons upon specified prior written notice to the Company. Either party may terminate the Takeda Agreement for an uncured material breach by the other party, or the other party’s insolvency or bankruptcy. Pursuant to the Takeda Agreement, we are eligible to receive other payments that include (i) clinical development and commercialization-based milestones, per target gene, of up to $104.0 million and (ii) tiered royalty payments based on net sales of applicable products at percentages ranging from the mid-single digits to low single-digits.

Licensing Our CodeEvolver® Enzyme Engineering Technology Platform

GlaxoSmithKline

We entered into our first CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering Platform Technology Transfer, Collaboration and License Agreement (“GSK CodeEvolver® Agreement”) in July 2014 with GlaxoSmithKline Intellectual Property Development Limited, a subsidiary of GSK, pursuant to which we granted GSK a non-exclusive, worldwide license to use our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform in the field of human healthcare for its internal development purposes.

Under the GSK CodeEvolver® Agreement, we licensed and transferred our certain patents, patent applications and know-how from our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform to GSK, completing the transfer in April 2016. Under this agreement, we have the potential to receive contingent payments that range from $5.75 million to $38.5 million per project based on GSK's successful application of the licensed technology. We are also eligible to receive royalties based on net sales, if any, of a limited set of products developed by GSK using our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform.

The term of the GSK CodeEvolver® Agreement continues, unless earlier terminated, until the expiration of all payment obligations under the GSK CodeEvolver® Agreement. GSK can terminate the GSK CodeEvolver® Agreement by providing 90 days written notice to us.

In 2019, we received a $2.0 million milestone payment on the advancement of an enzyme developed by GSK using our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering platform technology. In 2021, we received two additional milestone payments from GSK under the GSK CodeEvolver® Agreement.

Merck

In August 2015, we entered into a CodeEvolver® Platform Technology Transfer and License Agreement (the “Merck CodeEvolver® Agreement”) with Merck. The Merck CodeEvolver® Agreement allows Merck to use our proprietary CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering platform technology in the field of human and animal healthcare.

Under the terms of the Merck CodeEvolver® Agreement, we granted to Merck an exclusive license under certain patents, patent applications and know-how from our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform for the research, development and manufacture of novel enzymes for use by Merck in the chemical synthesis of therapeutic products owned or controlled by Merck ("Merck Exclusive Field") and a non-exclusive worldwide license to use the CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform to research, develop and manufacture novel enzymes for use by Merck in its internal research programs (“Merck Non-Exclusive Field”).

Under the terms of the Merck CodeEvolver® Agreement, Merck paid us upfront technology transfer and license fees and milestone payments over the technology transfer period of 15 months from August 2015. We also have the potential to receive product-related payments of up to $15.0 million for each active pharmaceutical ingredient (“API”) that is manufactured by Merck using one or more enzymes that have been developed or are in development using the CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform during the 10-year period that begins on the conclusion of the 15-month technology transfer period. These product-related payments, if any, will be paid by Merck to us for each quarter that Merck manufactures API using a CodeEvolver®-developed enzyme. The payments will be based on the total volume of API produced using the CodeEvolver®-developed enzyme.

In September 2016, we completed the full transfer of the engineering platform technology. In October 2018, we entered into an amendment to the Merck CodeEvolver® Agreement whereby we amended certain licensing provisions and one exhibit. In January 2019, we entered into an amendment to the Merck CodeEvolver® Agreement whereby we installed certain CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology upgrades into Merck’s platform license installation. We maintained those upgrades for a multi-year term that expired in January 2022.

Novartis

In May 2019, we entered into a Platform Technology Transfer and License Agreement (the “Novartis CodeEvolver® Agreement”) with Novartis. The Novartis CodeEvolver® Agreement allows Novartis to use our proprietary CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering platform technology in the field of human healthcare.

Under the terms of the Novartis CodeEvolver® Agreement, Codexis granted to Novartis a worldwide license to use certain patents, patent applications and know-how from our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform to research, develop and manufacture novel enzymes for use by or on behalf of Novartis as biocatalysts in the chemical synthesis of small molecule and bioconjugate APIs. The license is exclusive for the research, development and manufacture of novel enzymes for use by Novartis as biocatalysts in the chemical synthesis of API owned or controlled by Novartis (“Novartis Exclusive Field”) and non-exclusive license for the research, development and manufacture of novel enzymes for use by Novartis in the chemical synthesis of API not owned or controlled by Novartis or any third party (“Novartis Non-Exclusive Field”).

In July 2021, we announced the completion of the technology transfer period during which we transferred our proprietary CodeEvolver® platform technology to Novartis (the “Technology Transfer Period”).

Pursuant to the Novartis CodeEvolver® Agreement, we received an upfront payment of $5.0 million shortly after the effective date. We completed the second technology milestone transfer under the agreement and received a milestone payment of $4.0 million in 2020. We have also received an aggregate of $5.0 million for the completion of the third technology transfer milestone in 2021.

In consideration for the continued disclosure and license of improvements to the technology and materials during a multi-year period that began on the conclusion of the Technology Transfer Period (“Improvements Term”), Novartis will pay us annual payments over four years which amount to an additional $8.0 million in aggregate. We also have the potential to receive quantity-dependent, usage payments for each API that is manufactured by Novartis using one or more enzymes that have been developed or are in development using the CodeEvolver® platform technology during the period that began on the conclusion of the Technology Transfer Period and ends on the expiration date of the last to expire licensed patent. These product-related usage payments, if any, will be paid by Novartis to Codexis for each quarter that Novartis manufactures API using a CodeEvolver ®-developed enzyme.

The licenses to Novartis are granted under patents, patent applications and know-how that Codexis owns or controls as of the effective date and that cover the CodeEvolver® platform technology. Any improvements to the CodeEvolver® platform technology during the Technology Transfer Period will also be included in the license grants from Codexis to Novartis.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Our success depends in large part on our ability to protect our proprietary technology, products and services under patent, copyright, trademark and trade secret laws. We also rely heavily on confidentiality and non-disclosure and other contractual agreements for further protection of our proprietary technology, products and services. Protection of our proprietary rights, titles and interests is important for us to offer our customers and partners proprietary technology, products and services that are not available from our competitors, and to exclude our competitors from practicing technology that we have developed or exclusively licensed from other parties. For example, our ability to successfully supply innovator pharmaceutical manufacturers as customers depends on our ability to supply proprietary enzymes or methods for making pharmaceutical intermediates or APIs that are not available from our competitors. Likewise, in the generic pharmaceutical area, protection of our proprietary technology, products and services directed to our enzymes and methods of producing pharmaceutical products, through patent or trade secret laws or other legal protections is important for us and our customers to maintain a lower cost production advantage over competitors.

As of December 31, 2022, we owned or controlled approximately 2,090 issued patents and pending patent applications in the United States and in various foreign jurisdictions, many of which are directed to our enabling technologies and specific methods and products that support our business in the pharmaceutical markets. In addition, our portfolio includes patents and pending patent applications that support our businesses in the biotherapeutics, molecular diagnostics, food and other markets. Our patents and pending patent applications, if issued, have terms that expire between 2023 and approximately 2043. Our United States ("U.S.") patents and pending patent applications directed to the CodeEvolver® proprietary enabling technology platform developed internally by us have terms that expire between 2029 and approximately 2034. It is possible that some U.S. patents and patent applications (if issued) may be entitled to patent term extensions and/or patent term adjustments, which would extend the protection beyond these expiration dates. It is also possible that some patents and patent applications (if issued) in other jurisdictions will be entitled to additional patent term. Our current intellectual property rights also include patents, trademarks, copyrights, software and certain assumed contracts that we acquired from Maxygen, Inc. (“Maxygen”) in October 2010, which are associated with directed evolution technology, known as the MolecularBreeding™ technology platform developed by Maxygen. The intellectual property rights and other related assets that we acquired from Maxygen continue to be subject to existing exclusive and non-exclusive license rights granted by Maxygen to third parties. We continue to file new patent applications, for which terms generally extend 20 years from the non-provisional filing date in the United States.

As of December 31, 2022, we owned approximately 100 trademark registrations in the United States and foreign jurisdictions, as well as many common law trademarks. These include, but are not limited to: Codexis®, Codex®, CodeEvolver®, Mosaic®, Sage®, Microcyp®, MCYP®, ProSAR®, Unlock the Power of Proteins®, the Codexis Protein Engineering Experts® logo, Strategist®, Continuity®, Ameli®, Forager®, Analogene®, Harvester®, Atoms®, Riptide®, APS® and a Codexis design mark (i.e., the stylized Codexis logo).

COMPETITION

We face differing forms of competition in the biotherapeutics, pharmaceutical manufacturing and life sciences markets, as set forth below.

Biotherapeutics

There are other companies that participate in the biotherapeutics market generally and the PKU market specifically. Many of these companies are large, successful and well-capitalized. BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc. (“BioMarin”) and Daiichi Sankyo Company market Kuvan® in the United States, Europe and Japan for the treatment of a certain type of PKU. In addition, BioMarin had gained FDA approval in May 2018 and began the commercial sales of Palynziq®, an injectable enzyme substitution therapy to address different options for care in the treatment of PKU. Subsequently in May 2019, BioMarin obtained marketing authorization for Palynziq® from the European Commission. Several companies, including Synlogic, Homology Medicines and Rubius have reported clinical efforts to develop biotherapeutic candidates for PKU. Beyond targeting PKU, Takeda, Genzyme / Sanofi S.A., BioMarin, and other companies market or are actively developing enzyme therapeutics. There are numerous companies that are developing other forms of therapeutics, such as small molecules, gene therapy, as well as therapies based on gene editing, which could compete with biotherapeutics.

There are several companies developing or marketing pancreatic enzyme replacement therapies (PERTs) for the treatment of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). Approved products derived from porcine pancreas and taken orally with meals include: Creon® (marketed by Abbvie in the US, and by Abbott in the EU, China, Taiwan, Japan, and India), Zenpep® (marketed by Nestlé in the US and EU), Pancreaze® (marketed by Vivus in the US), and Pertzye® (marketed by Chiesi in the US). There are also companies developing recombinant PERTs for treating EPI. First Wave Biopharma is presently testing a recombinant lipase enzyme, adrulipase, in Phase 2 clinical trials. There are also therapies in pre-clinical development for EPI treatment, including SNSP003 (developed by Synspira Therapeutics), a combination of purified lipase, amylase, and protease, in collaboration with the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Current marketed PERT therapies as well as potential future PERT therapies in development could compete with CDX-7108.

Performance Enzyme

Pharmaceutical Manufacturing

We market our biocatalyst products and services to manufacturers of small molecule pharmaceutical intermediates and APIs. Our primary competitors in that market are companies marketing either conventional, non-enzymatic catalysts or alternative biocatalyst products and services, or from full service contract development and manufacturing service providers (“CDMOs”) offering conventional chemistry approaches to the production of APIs. We also sometimes face competition from existing in-house technologies (both biocatalysts and conventional chemistries) within our client and potential client companies. The principal methods of competition and competitive differentiation in this market are price, product quality and performance, including manufacturing yield, safety and environmental benefits and speed of delivery of product. Pharmaceutical manufacturers that use biocatalytic processes can face competition from manufacturers that use more conventional processes and/or manufacturers that are based in regions (such as India and China) with lower regulatory, safety and environmental costs.

We also compete with companies developing and marketing conventional catalysts including, for example, Solvias AG, BASF, Johnson-Matthey and Takasago International Corporation.

The market for supplying enzymes for use in pharmaceutical manufacturing is quite fragmented. There is competition from large industrial enzyme companies, as well as subsidiaries of larger contract research/contract manufacturing organizations, such as Royal DSM N.V. (“DSM”), Cambrex Corporation, Lonza, WuXi STA and Almac Group Ltd. Some fermentation pathway design companies, such as Zymergen, which was acquired by Gingko BioWorks, and Amyris, whose traditional focus has been to design microorganisms that express small molecule chemicals, could extend into designing organisms that express enzymes. There is also competition in the enzyme customization and optimization area from several smaller companies, such as BRAIN AG, Arzeda, c-LEcta GmbH and evoxx technologies GmbH.

The market for the manufacture and supply of APIs and intermediates is large, with many established companies. These companies include many of our large innovator and generic pharmaceutical customers, such as Merck, GSK, Novartis, Pfizer Inc. ("Pfizer"), Bristol-Myers Squibb Company ("Bristol-Myers"), KYORIN Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. ("Kyorin"), Urovant Sciences GmbH ("Urovant"), and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Limited ("Teva"), which have significant internal research and development efforts directed at developing processes to manufacture APIs and intermediates for use in their drug product manufacturing. There is also a large network of contract (development &) manufacturing organizations (“C(D)MOs”) servicing the innovator companies with supply of APIs and/or intermediates, These C(D)MOs include Cambrex Corporation, Lonza, WuXi STA and Almac Group Ltd, among many others. The processes used by these companies (both C(D)MOs and innovators) include classical organic chemistry reactions, chemo-catalytic reactions, biocatalytic reactions or combinations thereof. Our biocatalyst-based manufacturing processes must compete effectively on cost and efficiency with these internally developed routes.

We believe that our principal advantage is our ability to rapidly deliver customized biocatalysts for existing and new intermediates and APIs in the pharmaceutical manufacturing market. This capability has allowed us to create a breadth of biocatalysts with improved performance characteristics including, for example, better activity, stability, and activity on a range of substrates, compared to traditional chemistry-based manufacturing processes and naturally occurring (and thus not optimized) biocatalysts. We believe that our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering platform technology provides substantially superior results, in shorter time frames, than companies offering competing biocatalyst development services.

Life Sciences

Our Life Sciences business is focused in two key areas, nucleic acid manufacturing and genomics. We supply engineered enzymes and custom services to manufacturers of messenger RNA (“mRNA”), small interfering RNA (“RNAi”), antisense oligonucleotides (“ASOs”), and other RNA-based molecules as well as manufacturers of next generation sequencing (“NGS”) workflows and kits, in vitro diagnostics (“IVD”), and molecular diagnostic assays. Several of our competitors, such as ThermoFisher Scientific, Roche Diagnostics (a division of Roche Holding AG), New England Biolabs (“NEB”), and QIAGEN group offer a wide diversity of products across the life sciences market, including products that support multiple applications in RNA manufacturing and genomics. We also compete with companies that are more focused on offering products and services for RNA manufacturing, such as Aldevron (a Danaher company) as well as companies focused on providing enzymes and services to genomic sequencing applications, such as Promega Corporation and Watchmaker Genomics. The life science industry has seen great technological leaps since the introduction of enzymes into laboratory and clinical workflows and we recognize the importance of enzymes in this market and the need for purpose-fit, robust, and highly active enzymes that are made possible with our core technology.

Other

Core Technology

We are a leader in the field of enzyme engineering to create novel enzymes. Each of our segments rely on our core technology. We are aware that other companies, organizations and persons have developed technologies that appear to have some similarities to our patented proprietary technologies. For example, we are aware that other companies, including Zymergen, which was acquired by Gingko Bioworks, Amyris, Absci and Amicus Therapeutics have alternative methods for obtaining and generating genetic diversity or use mutagenesis techniques to produce genetic diversity. In addition, academic institutions such as the California Institute of Technology, the Max Planck Institute and the Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology are also working in this field. This field is highly competitive with companies and academic and research institutions actively seeking to develop technologies that could be competitive with our technologies.

Technological developments by others may result in our products and technologies, as well as products manufactured by our customers using our biocatalysts, becoming obsolete. We monitor publications and patents that relate to directed molecular evolution to be aware of developments in the field and evaluate appropriate courses of action in relation to these developments.

Many of our competitors have substantially greater manufacturing, financial, research and development, personnel and marketing resources than we do. As a result, our competitors may be able to develop competing and/or superior technologies and processes, and compete more aggressively and sustain that competition over a longer period of time than we could. Our technologies and products may be rendered obsolete or uneconomical by technological advances or entirely different approaches developed by one or more of our competitors.

We initially commercialized our CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform and products in the manufacture of small molecule pharmaceuticals, which remains a primary business focus. Our customers, which include many large, global pharmaceutical companies, use our technology, products and services in their process development and in manufacturing. Additionally, we have licensed our proprietary CodeEvolver® enzyme engineering technology platform to global pharmaceutical companies enabling them to use this technology, in house, to engineer enzymes for their own businesses.

OPERATIONS

Our corporate headquarters are located in Redwood City, California and provide general administrative support to our business and are the center of our research, development and business operations. We have limited internal manufacturing capacity at our headquarters in Redwood City. We expect to rely on third-party manufacturers for commercial production of our biocatalysts for the foreseeable future. Our in-house manufacturing is dedicated to producing both Codex® biocatalyst panels and kits and enzymes for use by our customers in pilot scale and clinical production. We also supply initial commercial quantities of biocatalysts for use by our collaborators to produce pharmaceutical intermediates and manufacture biocatalysts that we sell. In the first quarter of 2021, we entered into an arrangement to lease a facility in San Carlos, California to serve as an additional office and research and development laboratory space which we occupied beginning December 2021. Please see Note 15, “Segment, Geographical and Other Revenue Information” in the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Item 8 of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for a description of our revenues and long-lived assets both within and outside of the United States, and with respect to the San Carlos facility, please see Note 13, “Commitments and Contingencies” in the Notes to our Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Item 8 of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Our research and development operations include efforts directed towards engineering biocatalysts, bioprocess development, cellular engineering, biocatalyst screening, metabolites, strain improvement, fermentation development and process engineering. We conduct enzyme evolution, enzyme production development, microbial bioprocess development, cellular engineering, microbial evolution and process engineering evaluations and design primarily at our headquarters in Redwood City, California. Manufacturing of our enzymes is conducted primarily in four locations, at our in-house facility in Redwood City, California and at third-party contract manufacturing organizations, Lactosan GmbH & Co. KG (“Lactosan”) in Kapfenberg, Austria, ACS Dobfar S.p.A. ("ACSD") (formerly known as DPhar S.p.A.) in Anagni, Italy, and Alphazyme LLC ("Alphazyme") in Florida, United States. Generally, we perform smaller scale manufacturing in-house and outsource the larger scale manufacturing, representing a large percentage of our production of novel enzymes, to contract manufacturing organizations.

GOVERNMENT REGULATION

In the United States, the FDA extensively regulates, among other things, the research, development, testing, manufacture, quality control, import, export, safety, effectiveness, labeling, packaging, storage, distribution, record keeping, approval, advertising, promotion, marketing, post-approval monitoring, and post-approval reporting of drug and biologic products under the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, its implementing regulations and other laws, including, in the case of biologics, the Public Health Service Act. Our biotherapeutic product candidates are subject to regulation by the FDA as biologics. Biologics require the submission of a biologics license application (“BLA”) and licensure, which constitutes approval, by the FDA before being marketed in the United States. We, along with third-party contractors and our collaborators, will be required to navigate the various preclinical, clinical and commercial approval requirements of the governing regulatory agencies of the countries in which we wish to conduct studies or seek approval or licensure of our product candidates. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and the subsequent compliance with applicable federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources.

The process required by the FDA before a biologic product may be marketed in the United States generally involves the following:

•completion of preclinical laboratory tests and animal studies performed in accordance with the FDA’s good laboratory practice (“GLP”) regulations;

•submission to the FDA of an IND, which must become effective before clinical trials in the United States may begin;

•approval by an institutional review board (“IRB”), or ethics committee at each clinical site before the trial is commenced;

•performance of adequate and well-controlled human clinical trials to establish the safety and potency of the product candidate for each proposed indication, conducted in accordance with the FDA’s good clinical practice (“GCP”) regulations;

•preparation and submission to the FDA of a BLA after completion of all pivotal clinical trials:

•satisfactory completion of an FDA Advisory Committee review, if applicable;

•a determination by the FDA within 60 days of its receipt of a BLA to file the application for review;

•satisfactory completion of an FDA inspection of the manufacturing facility or facilities at which the product is produced to assess compliance with current good manufacturing practice (“cGMP”) regulations and to assure that the facilities, methods and controls are adequate to preserve the biological product’s continued safety, purity and potency, and of selected clinical investigation sites to assess compliance with Good Clinical Practices, or GCPs; and

•FDA review and approval of the BLA prior to any commercial marketing, sale or distribution of the product.

Preclinical and Clinical Trials

Once a product candidate is identified for development, it enters the preclinical testing stage. Preclinical studies include laboratory evaluations of drug chemistry, formulation and stability, as well as studies to evaluate toxicity in animals, which must be conducted in accordance with GLP requirements. The results of preclinical studies, together with manufacturing information and analytical data, are submitted to the FDA as part of an IND. An IND is a request for authorization from the FDA to administer an investigational new drug to humans. The central focus of an IND submission is on the general investigational plan and the protocol(s) for clinical studies. The IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless the FDA, within the 30-day time period, raises concerns or questions about the conduct of the clinical trial, including concerns that human research subjects will be exposed to unreasonable health risks, and imposes a clinical hold. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin.

A separate submission to an existing IND must also be made for each successive clinical trial conducted during product development, and the FDA must grant permission, either explicitly or implicitly by not objecting, before each clinical trial can begin. Progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials, among other information, must be submitted at least annually to the FDA and written IND safety reports must be submitted to the FDA and the investigators for serious and unexpected suspected adverse events, findings from other studies or animal or in vitro testing that suggest a significant risk for human subjects and any clinically important increase in the rate of a serious suspected adverse reaction over that listed in the protocol or investigator brochure.

Clinical trials involve the administration of the product candidate to human subjects under the supervision of qualified investigators in accordance with GCPs, which include the requirement that all research subjects provide their informed consent for their participation in any clinical study. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the clinical trial and the parameters and criteria to be used in monitoring safety and evaluating effectiveness. Each protocol must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. An independent IRB for each investigator site proposing to participate in a clinical trial must also review and approve the clinical trial and its informed consent form before it can begin at that site, and the IRB must monitor the clinical trial until it is completed. The FDA, the IRB, or the sponsor may suspend or discontinue a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the subjects are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk or that the trial is unlikely to meet its stated objectives. Some studies also include oversight by an independent group of qualified experts organized by the clinical study sponsor, known as a data safety monitoring board, which provides authorization for whether or not a study may move forward at designated check points based on access to certain data from the study and may halt the clinical trial if it determines that there is an unacceptable safety risk for subjects or other grounds, such as no demonstration of efficacy. There are also requirements governing the reporting of ongoing clinical studies and clinical study results to public registries.

For purposes of BLA approval, clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases, which may overlap or be combined.

•Phase 1 - Phase 1 clinical trials involve initial introduction of the investigational product into healthy human subjects or patients with the target disease or condition. These studies are typically designed to test the safety, dosage tolerance, absorption, metabolism and distribution of the investigational product in humans, the side effects associated with increasing doses, and, if possible, to gain early evidence of effectiveness.

•Phase 2 - Phase 2 clinical trials typically involve administration of the investigational product to a limited patient population with a specified disease or condition to evaluate the preliminary efficacy, optimal dosage and dosing schedule and to identify possible adverse side effects and safety risks.

•Phase 3 - Phase 3 clinical trials typically involve administration of the investigational product to an expanded patient population to further evaluate dosage, to provide statistically significant evidence of clinical efficacy and to further test for safety, generally at multiple geographically dispersed clinical trial sites. These clinical trials are intended to establish the overall risk/benefit ratio of the investigational product and to provide an adequate basis for product approval and physician labeling.

In some cases, the FDA may condition approval of a BLA on the sponsor’s agreement to conduct additional clinical trials to further assess the biologic’s safety and effectiveness after BLA approval. Such post-approval clinical trials are typically referred to as Phase 4 clinical trials. Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional animal studies and must also develop additional information about the chemistry and physical characteristics of the biologic and finalize a process for manufacturing the biologic in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and manufacturers must develop, among other things, methods for testing the identity, strength, quality and purity of the final biological product. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the product candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf life.

Although most clinical research performed in the United States in support of a BLA must be authorized in advance by the FDA, under the IND regulations and procedures described above, there are certain circumstances under which clinical trials can be conducted without submission of an IND. For example, a sponsor who wishes to conduct a clinical trial outside the United States may, but need not, obtain FDA authorization to conduct the clinical trial under an IND.

BLA Submission and FDA Review

Assuming successful completion of all required testing in accordance with all applicable regulatory requirements, the results of preclinical studies and clinical trials, together with other detailed information, including extensive manufacturing information and information on the composition of the biologic, are submitted to the FDA in the form of a BLA requesting approval to market the biologic for one or more specified indications. The BLA must include all relevant data available from preclinical and clinical studies, including negative or ambiguous results as well as positive findings, together with detailed information relating to the product’s chemistry, manufacturing, controls, and proposed labeling, among other things. Data can come from company-sponsored clinical studies intended to test the safety and effectiveness of a use of the product, or from a number of alternative sources, including studies initiated by investigators. The submission of a BLA requires payment of a substantial user fee unless a waiver is granted. Each BLA submitted to the FDA is reviewed for administrative completeness and reviewability within 60 days of the FDA’s receipt of the application. If the BLA is found to be complete, the FDA will file the BLA, triggering a full substantive review of the application. The FDA may refuse to file any BLA that it deems incomplete or not properly reviewable at the time of submission.

Once a BLA has been accepted for filing under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, the FDA has a goal of reviewing BLAs within ten months of the 60-day filing date for BLAs designated for standard review or six months for priority review, but the overall timeframe is often extended by FDA requests for additional information or clarification. The FDA reviews a BLA to determine, among other things, whether the biological product is safe, pure and potent and whether the facility or facilities in which it is manufactured meet standards designed to assure the product’s continued safety, purity and potency. The FDA may refer the application to an advisory committee for review, evaluation and recommendation as to whether the application should be approved. The FDA is not bound by the recommendation of an advisory committee, but it generally follows such recommendations.

Before approving a BLA, the FDA will inspect the facility or the facilities at which the biologic product is manufactured, and will not license the product unless cGMP compliance is satisfactory. The FDA may also inspect the sites at which the clinical trials were conducted to assess their compliance with GCP requirements, and will not license the biologic unless compliance with such requirements is satisfactory. If the FDA determines that the application, manufacturing process or manufacturing facilities are not acceptable, it will outline the deficiencies in the submission and often will request additional testing or information. Notwithstanding the submission of any requested additional information, the FDA ultimately may decide that the application does not satisfy the regulatory criteria for approval.

After the FDA evaluates a BLA and conducts inspections of manufacturing facilities where the investigational product and/or its drug substance will be produced, the FDA may issue an approval letter or a Complete Response Letter (“CRL”). An approval letter authorizes commercial marketing of the product with specific prescribing information for specific indications. A CRL will describe all of the deficiencies that the FDA has identified in the BLA, except that where the FDA determines that the data supporting the application are inadequate to support approval, the FDA may issue the CRL without first conducting required inspections, testing submitted product lots, and/or reviewing proposed labeling. In issuing the CRL, the FDA may recommend actions that the applicant might take to place the BLA in condition for approval, including requests for additional information or clarification. The FDA may delay or refuse approval of a BLA if applicable regulatory criteria are not satisfied, require additional testing or information and/or require post-marketing testing and surveillance to monitor safety or efficacy of a product.

If regulatory approval of a product is granted, such approval will be granted for particular indications and may entail limitations on the indicated uses for which such product may be marketed. For example, the FDA may approve the BLA with a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (“REMS”), to ensure the benefits of the product outweigh its risks. A REMS is a safety strategy implemented to manage a known or potential serious risk associated with a product and to enable patients to have continued access to such medicines by managing their safe use, and could include medication guides, physician communication plans, or elements to assure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries and other risk minimization tools. The FDA also may condition approval on, among other things, changes to proposed labeling or the development of adequate controls and specifications. Once approved, the FDA may withdraw the product approval if compliance with pre- and post-marketing requirements is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the marketplace. The FDA may require one or more Phase 4 post-market studies and surveillance to further assess and monitor the product’s safety and effectiveness after commercialization, and may limit further marketing of the product based on the results of these post-marketing studies.

Expedited Development and Review Programs

The FDA maintains several programs intended to facilitate and expedite development and review of new drugs and biologics designed to address unmet medical needs in the treatment of serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions.

For example, a product candidate is eligible for Fast Track designation if it is intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and demonstrates the potential to address unmet medical needs for such disease or condition. Fast Track designation applies to the combination of the product candidate and the specific indication for which it is being studied. Fast Track designation provides increased opportunities for sponsor meetings with the FDA during preclinical and clinical development, in addition to the potential for rolling review once a marketing application is filed, meaning that the FDA may review portions of the marketing application before the sponsor submits the complete application, if the sponsor provides a schedule for the submission of the sections of the BLA, the FDA agrees to accept sections of the BLA and determines that the schedule is acceptable, and the sponsor pays any required user fees upon submission of the first section of the BLA.

In addition, a product candidate may be eligible for Breakthrough Therapy designation if it is intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the product candidate may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. Breakthrough Therapy designation provides all the features of Fast Track designation in addition to intensive guidance on an efficient development program beginning as early as Phase 1, and FDA organizational commitment to expedited development, including involvement of senior managers and experienced review staff in a cross-disciplinary review, where appropriate.

Any product candidate submitted to the FDA for approval, including a product candidate with Fast Track or Breakthrough Therapy designation, may also be eligible for additional FDA programs intended to expedite the review process, including Priority Review designation and Accelerated Approval. A BLA is eligible for Priority Review if the product candidate is designed to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, and if approved, would provide a significant improvement in safety or effectiveness in the treatment, diagnosis or prevention of a serious disease or condition.

Additionally, product candidates studied for their safety and effectiveness in treating serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions may receive Accelerated Approval if they can be shown to have an effect on a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict clinical benefit, or an effect on a clinical endpoint that can be measured earlier than an effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality which is reasonably likely to predict an effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit, taking into account the severity, rarity, or prevalence of the condition and the availability or lack of alternative treatments. As a condition of accelerated approval, the FDA will generally require the sponsor to perform adequate and well-controlled post-marketing clinical studies to verify and describe the anticipated effect on irreversible morbidity or mortality or other clinical benefit. Products receiving accelerated approval may be subject to expedited withdrawal procedures if the sponsor fails to conduct the required post-marketing studies or if such studies fail to verify the predicted clinical benefit. In addition, the FDA currently requires as a condition for accelerated approval pre-approval of promotional materials, which could adversely impact the timing of the commercial launch of the product.

Fast Track designation, Breakthrough Therapy designation, Priority Review designation and Accelerated Approval do not change the standards for approval but may expedite the development or review process. Even if a product qualifies for one or more of these programs, the FDA may later decide that the product no longer meets the conditions for qualification or decide that the time period for FDA review or approval will not be shortened.

Orphan Drug Designation and Exclusivity

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may grant orphan designation to a drug or biologic intended to treat a rare disease or condition, defined as a disease or condition with a patient population of fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or a patient population greater than 200,000 individuals in the United States and when there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making available the drug or biologic in the United States will be recovered from sales in the United States for that drug or biologic. Orphan drug designation must be requested before submitting a BLA. After the FDA grants orphan drug designation, the generic identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA.

If a product candidate that has orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for a particular active ingredient for the disease for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan product exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications, including a full BLA, to market the same biologic for the same disease or condition for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan drug exclusivity or if the FDA finds that the holder of the orphan drug exclusivity has not shown that it can assure the availability of sufficient quantities of the orphan drug to meet the needs of patients with the disease or condition for which the drug was designated. Orphan drug exclusivity does not prevent the FDA from approving a different drug or biologic for the same disease or condition, or the same drug or biologic for a different disease or condition. Among the other benefits of orphan drug designation are tax credits for certain research and a waiver of the BLA application user fee.

A designated orphan drug many not receive orphan drug exclusivity if it is approved for a use that is broader than the disease or condition for which it received orphan designation. In addition, orphan drug exclusive marketing rights in the United States may be lost if the FDA later determines that the request for designation was materially defective or, as noted above, if a second applicant demonstrates that its product is clinically superior to the approved product with orphan exclusivity or the manufacturer of the approved product is unable to assure sufficient quantities of the product to meet the needs of patients with the rare disease or condition.

Emergency Use Authorization

The Commissioner of the FDA, under delegated authority from the Secretary of HHS may, under certain circumstances in connection with a declared public health emergency, allow for the marketing of a product that does not otherwise comply with FDA regulations by issuing an EUA for such product. Before an EUA may be issued by HHS, the Secretary must declare an emergency based a determination that public health emergency exists that effects or has the significant potential to affect, national security, and that involves a specified biological, chemical, radiological, or nuclear agent or agents (“CBRN”), or a specified disease or condition that may be attributable to such CBRN. On February 4, 2020, the HHS Secretary determined that there is such a public health emergency that involves the virus now known as SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes the COVID-19 infection. Once the determination of the threat or emergency has been made, the Secretary of HHS must then declare that an emergency exists justifying the issuance of EUAs for certain types of products (referred to as EUA declarations). On March 27, 2020, the Secretary of HHS declared – on the basis of his determination of a public health emergency that has the potential to affect national security or the health and security of U.S. citizens living abroad that involves SARS-CoV-2 – that circumstances exist justifying authorization of drugs and biologics during the COVID-19 pandemic, subject to the terms of any EUA that is issued.

Once an EUA declaration has been issued, the FDA can issue EUAs for products that fall within the scope of that declaration. To issue an EUA, the FDA Commissioner must conclude that (1) the CBRN that is referred to in the EUA declaration can cause serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions; (2) based on the totality of scientific evidence available, it is reasonable to believe that the product may be effective in diagnosing, treating, or preventing the disease or condition attributable to the CBRN and that the product’s known and potential benefits outweigh its known and potential risks; and (3) there is no adequate, approved, and available alternative to the product. Products subject to an EUA must still comply with the conditions of the EUA, including labeling and marketing requirements. Moreover, the authorization to market products under an EUA is limited to the period of time the EUA declaration is in effect, and the FDA can revoke an EUA in certain circumstances.

Rare Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher Program

In 2012, Congress authorized the FDA to award priority review vouchers to sponsors of certain rare pediatric disease product applications. This program is designed to encourage development of new drug and biological products for prevention and treatment of certain rare pediatric diseases. Specifically, under this program, a sponsor who receives an approval for a drug or biologic for a “rare pediatric disease” may qualify for a voucher that can be redeemed to receive a priority review of a subsequent marketing application for a different product. The sponsor of a rare pediatric disease drug product receiving a priority review voucher may transfer (including by sale) the voucher to another sponsor. The voucher may be further transferred any number of times before the voucher is used, as long as the sponsor making the transfer has not yet submitted the application. The FDA may also revoke any priority review voucher if the rare pediatric disease drug for which the voucher was awarded is not marketed in the U.S. within one year following the date of approval.

For purposes of this program, a “rare pediatric disease” is a (a) serious or life-threatening disease in which the serious or life-threatening manifestations primarily affect individuals aged from birth to 18 years, including age groups often called neonates, infants, children, and adolescents; and (b) rare diseases or conditions within the meaning of the Orphan Drug Act. On December 27, 2020, the Rare Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher Program was extended. Under the current statutory sunset provisions, after September 30, 2024, FDA may only award a voucher for an approved rare pediatric disease product application if the sponsor has rare pediatric disease designation for the drug, and that designation was granted by September 30, 2024. After September 30, 2026, FDA may not award any Rare Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher.

Post-Approval Requirements

Licensed biologics that are manufactured and distributed in the United States are subject to pervasive and continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, requirements relating to recordkeeping, periodic reporting, product distribution, advertising and promotion and reporting of adverse experiences with the product. There is also a continuing, annual prescription drug program user fee.

Any biologics manufactured or distributed pursuant to FDA approvals remain subject to ongoing regulation by the FDA. Manufacturers and their subcontractors are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, and are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and certain state agencies for compliance with ongoing regulatory requirements, including cGMP, which impose extensive procedural and documentation requirements. Failure to comply with statutory and regulatory requirements can subject a manufacturer to possible legal or regulatory action, such as warning letters, suspension of manufacturing, product seizures, injunctions, civil penalties or criminal prosecution.

Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information, requirements for post-market studies or clinical trials to assess new safety risks, imposition of distribution or other restrictions under a REMS. Other potential consequences include, among other things:

•restrictions on the marketing or manufacturing of the product, complete withdrawal of the product from the market or product recalls;

•fines, warning letters, untitled letters, or holds on post-approval clinical trials;

•refusal of the FDA to approve applications or supplements to approved applications, or suspension or revocation of product approvals;

•product seizure or detention, or refusal to permit the import or export of products;

•mandated modification of promotional materials and labeling and the issuance of corrective information;

•the issuance of safety alerts, Dear Healthcare Provider letters, press releases and other communications containing warnings or other safety information about the product; or

•injunctions or the imposition of civil or criminal penalties.

The FDA closely regulates the post-approval marketing and promotion of biologics, including standards and regulations for direct-to-consumer advertising, off-label promotion, industry-sponsored scientific and educational activities, and promotional activities involving the internet and social media. A company can make only those claims relating to safety and efficacy that are approved by the FDA. Physicians may prescribe legally available biologics for uses that are not described in the product’s labeling and that differ from those tested by us and approved by the FDA. Such off-label uses are common across medical specialties. Physicians may believe that such off-label uses are the best treatment for many patients in varied circumstances.

The FDA does not regulate the behavior of physicians in their choice of treatments. The FDA does, however, impose stringent restrictions on manufacturers’ communications regarding off-label use. Failure to comply with these requirements can result in adverse publicity, warning letters, corrective advertising and potential civil and criminal penalties.

Biosimilars and Regulatory Exclusivity

As part of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act enacted in 2010, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, the Biologics Price Competition and Innovation Act (“BPCIA”) established an abbreviated pathway for the approval of biosimilar and interchangeable biological products. The abbreviated regulatory pathway provides legal authority for the FDA to review and approve biosimilar biologics based on their similarity to an existing brand product, referred to as a reference product, including the possible designation of a biosimilar as interchangeable with a brand product.

Biosimilarity, which requires that there be no clinically meaningful differences between the biological product and the reference product in terms of safety, purity, and potency, can be shown through analytical studies, animal studies, and a clinical study or studies. Interchangeability requires that a product is biosimilar to the reference product and the product must demonstrate that it can be expected to produce the same clinical results as the reference product in any given patient and, for products that are administered multiple times to an individual, the biologic and the reference biologic may be alternated or switched after one has been previously administered without increasing safety risks or risks of diminished efficacy relative to exclusive use of the reference biologic.

Under the BPCIA, the approval of a biosimilar product may not be made effective by the FDA until 12 years from the date on which the reference product was first licensed by the FDA. In addition, the licensure of a biosimilar product may not be made effective by the FDA until 12 years from the date on which the reference product was first licensed. During this 12-year period of exclusivity, another company may still market a competing version of the reference product if the FDA approves a full BLA for the competing product containing that applicant’s own preclinical data and data from adequate and well-controlled clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, purity and potency of its product. The BPCIA also created certain exclusivity periods for biosimilars approved as interchangeable products. At this juncture, it is unclear whether products deemed “interchangeable” by the FDA will, in fact, be readily substituted by pharmacies, which are governed by state pharmacy law. In addition, the period of exclusivity provided by the BPCIA only operates against third parties seeking approval via the abbreviated pathway, but would not prevent third parties from pursuing approval via the traditional BLA approval pathway.

In addition, a biological product can also obtain pediatric market exclusivity in the United States. Pediatric exclusivity, if granted, adds six months to existing exclusivity periods and patent terms. This six-month exclusivity, which runs from the end of other exclusivity protection or patent term, may be granted based on the voluntary completion of a pediatric study in accordance with an FDA-issued “Written Request” for such a study.

Other Healthcare Laws

Pharmaceutical companies are subject to additional healthcare regulation and enforcement by the federal government and by authorities in the states and foreign jurisdictions in which they conduct their business and may constrain the financial arrangements and relationships through which we and our partners research, sell, market and distribute any products for which we obtain marketing approval. Such laws include, without limitation, state and federal anti-kickback, fraud and abuse, false claims and transparency laws regarding drug pricing and payments and other transfer of value to physicians and other healthcare providers. If their operations are found to be in violation of any of such laws or any other governmental regulations that apply, they may be subject to penalties, including, without limitation, administrative, civil and criminal penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, the curtailment or restructuring of operations, integrity oversight and reporting obligations, exclusion from participation in federal and state healthcare programs and individual imprisonment.

Coverage and Reimbursement

Sales of any product depend, in part, on the extent to which such product will be covered by third-party payors, such as federal, state, and foreign government healthcare programs, commercial insurance and managed healthcare organizations, and the level of reimbursement for such product by third-party payors. Decisions regarding the extent of coverage and amount of reimbursement to be provided are made on a plan-by-plan basis. These third-party payors are increasingly reducing reimbursements for medical products, drugs and services. In addition, the U.S. government, state legislatures and foreign governments have continued implementing cost-containment programs, including price controls, restrictions on coverage and reimbursement and requirements for substitution of generic products. Adoption of price controls and cost-containment measures, and adoption of more restrictive policies in jurisdictions with existing controls and measures, could further limit sales of any product. Decreases in third-party reimbursement for any product or a decision by a third-party payor not to cover a product could reduce physician usage and patient demand for the product and also have a material adverse effect on sales.

Healthcare Reform

In March 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, each as amended (collectively known as the “ACA”), was enacted, which substantially changed the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers, and significantly affected the pharmaceutical industry. The ACA contained a number of provisions, including those governing enrollment in federal healthcare programs, reimbursement adjustments and changes to fraud and abuse laws. For example, the ACA:

•increased the minimum level of Medicaid rebates payable by manufacturers of brand name drugs from 15.1% to 23.1% of the average manufacturer price;

•required collection of rebates for drugs paid by Medicaid managed care organizations;

•required manufacturers to participate in a coverage gap discount program, under which they must agree to offer 70 percent point-of-sale discounts off negotiated prices of applicable brand drugs to eligible beneficiaries during their coverage gap period, as a condition for the manufacturer’s outpatient drugs to be covered under Medicare Part D; and

•imposed a non-deductible annual fee on pharmaceutical manufacturers or importers who sell “branded prescription drugs” to specified federal government programs.

Since its enactment, there have been judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the ACA.

On June 17, 2021, the U.S Supreme Court dismissed the most recent judicial challenge to the ACA brought by several states without specifically ruling on the constitutionality of the ACA. Thus, the ACA will remain in effect in its current form.

Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the ACA was enacted. In March 2021, the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 was signed into law, which eliminates the statutory cap on the Medicaid drug rebate, currently set at 100% of a drug’s AMP, beginning January 1, 2024. Moreover, there has recently been heightened governmental scrutiny over the manner in which manufacturers set prices for their marketed products, which has resulted in several Congressional inquiries, proposed and enacted legislation and executive orders issued by the President designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to product pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drug products. Most recently, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, or IRA, included a number of significant drug pricing reforms, which include the establishment of a drug price negotiation program within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS (beginning in 2026) that requires manufacturers to charge a negotiated “maximum fair price” for certain selected drugs or pay an excise tax for noncompliance, the establishment of rebate payment requirements on manufacturers under Medicare Parts B and D to penalize price increases that outpace inflation (first due in 2023), and a redesign of the Part D benefit, as part of which manufacturers are required to provide discounts on Part D drugs (beginning in 2025). The IRA permits the HHS Secretary to implement many of these provisions through guidance, as opposed to regulation, for the initial years. Additional drug pricing proposals could appear in future legislation. Individual states in the United States have also become increasingly active in implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing.

Data Privacy and Security Laws

Numerous state, federal and foreign laws, including consumer protection laws and regulations, govern the collection, dissemination, use, access to, confidentiality, and security of personal information, including health-related information. In the United States, numerous federal and state laws and regulations, including data breach notification laws, health information privacy and security laws, and federal and state consumer protection laws and regulations (e.g., Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act) that govern the collection, use, disclosure, and protection of health-related and other personal information could apply to our operations or the operations of our partners. In addition, certain foreign laws govern the privacy and security of personal data, including health-related data. Failure to comply with these laws, were applicable, can result in the imposition of significant civil and /or criminal penalties and private litigation. Privacy and security laws, regulations, and other obligations are constantly evolving, may conflict with each other to make compliance efforts more challenging, and can result in investigations, proceedings, or actions that lead to significant penalties and restrictions on data processing.

Cybersecurity

In the normal course of business, we may collect and store personal information and other sensitive information, including proprietary and confidential business information, trade secrets, intellectual property, information regarding trial participants in connection with clinical trials, sensitive third-party information and employee information. To protect this information, our existing cybersecurity policies require continuous monitoring and detection programs, network security precautions, and in depth security assessment of technology vendors. We maintain various protections designed to safeguard against cyberattacks, including firewalls and virus detection software. We have established and regularly test our disaster recovery plan and we protect against business interruption by backing up our major systems. In addition, we periodically scan our environment for any vulnerabilities, perform penetration testing and engage third parties to assess effectiveness of our data security practices. A third party security consultant conducts regular network security reviews, scans and audits. In addition, we maintain insurance that includes cybersecurity coverage.

The program incorporates industry-standard frameworks, policies and practices designed to protect the privacy and security of our sensitive information.

Despite the implementation of our cybersecurity program, our security measures cannot guarantee that a significant cyberattack will not occur. A successful attack on our information technology systems could have significant consequences to the business. While we devote resources to our security measures to protect our systems and information, these measures cannot provide absolute security. See “Risk Factors – General Risk Factors” for additional information about the risks to our business associated with a breach or compromise to our information technology systems.

HUMAN CAPITAL RESOURCES

As of December 31, 2022, we had 248 full-time employees and part-time employees worldwide. Of these employees, 139 were engaged in research and development, 39 were engaged in operations and quality control and 70 were engaged in selling, general and administrative activities. None of our employees is represented by a labor union. Supported by our annual employee survey, we believe our relationship with our employees to be generally good. Our scientists, bioinformatics experts and other professionals work collaboratively as interdisciplinary teams to unlock and advance technological innovation.

Compensation, benefits and development

Our goal is to attract, motivate and retain talent with a focus on encouraging performance, promoting accountability and adhering to our company values. We offer competitive compensation and benefit programs including a company-matched 401(k) Plan, stock options for eligible employees, health savings and flexible spending accounts, paid time off, education and training programs, and employee assistance programs. We believe it is important to help build community and enabling our employees actively participate in community service projects and in company-sponsored philanthropic activities.

Diversity, inclusion and belonging

We are committed to our continued efforts to increase diversity and foster an inclusive work environment that supports the global workforce and the communities we serve. We recruit the best people for the job regardless of gender, ethnicity or other protected traits and it is our policy to fully comply with all laws applicable to discrimination in the workplace. Our diversity, equity and inclusion principles are also reflected in our employee training and policies. We continue to enhance our diversity, equity and inclusion policies which are guided by our executive leadership team.

Health and safety

We are committed to maintain a safe and healthy workplace for our employees. Our policies and practices are intended to protect our employees and surrounding communities in which we operate.

In 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, we implemented safety protocols and new procedures to protect our employees. These protocols include complying with social distancing and other health and safety standards as required by state and local government agencies, taking into consideration guidelines of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other public health authorities. In addition, we modified the way we conduct many aspects of our business including the practice of social distancing, wearing face coverings mandated by state and local regulations, and maintaining a quarantine for employees determined to be in close contact with a COVID-19 case. For example, we implemented day-time shift hours in our R&D and manufacturing at our Redwood City pilot plant to minimize the number of employees in close proximity to each other and we have significantly expanded the use of virtual interaction whenever possible in our business. For a detailed discussion of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on our human capital resources, see “Risk Factors" Item 1A of this Form 10-K.

We previously launched the Employee-Requested Work from Home Policy in late 2020. This policy establishes the process and criteria to enable Redwood City employees to request permission to work from home on a regular basis.

CORPORATE & AVAILABLE INFORMATION

We were incorporated in Delaware in January 2002 as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Maxygen, Inc. We commenced independent operations in March 2002, after licensing core enabling technology from Maxygen, Inc. Our principal corporate offices are located at 200 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, California 94063 and our telephone number is (650) 421-8100. Our internet address is www.codexis.com. The information on, or that can be accessed through, our website is not incorporated by reference into this Annual Report on Form 10-K or any other filings we make with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (the “SEC”).

We make available on or through our website certain reports and amendments to those reports that we file with, or furnish to, the SEC in accordance with the Exchange Act. These include our Annual Reports on Form 10-K, our Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q and our Current Reports on Form 8-K, and amendments to those reports filed or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Exchange Act. We make this information available on or through our website free of charge as soon as reasonably practicable after we electronically file the information with, or furnish it to, the SEC. Copies of this information may be obtained at the SEC website at www.sec.gov. The contents of these websites are not incorporated into this filing. Further, the references to website URLs are intended to be inactive textual references only.

ITEM 1A. RISK FACTORS

You should carefully consider the risks described below together with the other information set forth in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, which could materially affect our business, financial condition or future results. The risks described below are not the only risks facing our company. Risks and uncertainties not currently known to us or that we currently deem to be immaterial also may materially adversely affect our business, financial condition and/or operating results.

RISK FACTORS SUMMARY

The following is a summary of the principal factors that cause an investment in the company to be speculative or risky:

•We have a history of net losses and we may not achieve or maintain profitability.

•We are dependent on our collaborators, and our failure to successfully manage these relationships could prevent us from developing and commercializing many of our products.

•Our biotherapeutic programs are early stage, highly regulated and expensive.

•If either Nestlé Health Science or Takeda terminate their development programs under their respective license agreements with us, any potential revenue from those license agreements will be significantly reduced or non-existent.

•We may need additional capital in the future in order to expand our business.

•We are dependent on a limited number of customers.

•Our product supply agreements with customers have finite duration and may not be extended or renewed.

•With respect to customers purchasing our products for the manufacture of API, the termination or expiration of such patent protection may materially and adversely affect our revenues, financial condition or results of operations.

•We are dependent on a limited number of contract manufacturers for large scale production of substantially all of our enzymes, including CDX-616.

•If we are unable to develop and commercialize new products for the target markets, our business and prospects will be harmed.

•Competitors and potential competitors who have greater resources and experience than we do may develop products and technologies that make ours obsolete.

•The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has adversely affected and may continue in the future to, directly or indirectly, adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

•Revenues in in future years from our sales of CDX-616 to Pfizer are subject to a number of factors which are outside of our control and may not materialize.

•We have investments in non-marketable securities, which may subject us to significant impairment charges.

•Ethical, legal and social concerns about genetically engineered products and processes could limit or prevent the use of our products, processes, and technologies and limit our revenues.

•We use hazardous materials in our business and we must comply with environmental laws and regulations.

•Our ability to use our net operating loss carryforwards to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

•As a public reporting company, we are subject to rules and regulations established from time to time by the SEC and Nasdaq regarding our internal controls over financial reporting. We may not complete needed improvements to our internal controls over financial reporting in a timely manner, or these internal controls may not be determined to be effective, which may adversely affect investor confidence in our company and, as a result, the value of our common stock and your investment.

•If we engage in any acquisitions, we will incur a variety of costs and may potentially face numerous risks that could adversely affect our business and operations.

•We or our customers may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for the use of our products in food and food ingredients, if required.

•Our ongoing efforts to deploy our technology in the life science tools market may fail.

•The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and inherently unpredictable, and we may be unable to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates.

•Clinical trials are difficult to design and implement, expensive, time-consuming and involve an uncertain outcome.

•Results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials of product candidates may not be predictive of results of later studies or trials.

•We may not be able to maintain orphan drug designations for certain of our product candidates, and may be unable to maintain the benefits associated with orphan drug designation, including the potential for market exclusivity.

•We have obtained rare pediatric disease designation for CDX-6512 and CDX-6210, however, there is no guarantee that such designation will result in approval of CDX-6512 or CDX-6210, and even if we obtain approval of CDX-6512 or CDX-6210 for the indication for which we have been awarded rare pediatric disease designation, there is no guarantee that such approval will result in an aware of a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher.

•Disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies caused by funding shortages or global health concerns could hinder their ability to hire, retain, or deploy key leadership and other personnel, or otherwise prevent new or modified products from being developed, approved, or commercialized in a timely manner, or at all, which could negatively impact our business.

•Even if we obtain regulatory approval for any products that we develop alone or with collaborators, such products will remain subject to ongoing regulatory requirements.

•Our business operations and future relationships with investigators, healthcare professionals, consultants, third-party payors, patient organizations and customers will be subject to applicable healthcare regulatory laws, which could expose us to penalties.

•The successful commercialization of product candidates developed by us or our partners will depend in part on the extent to which governmental authorities and health insurers establish adequate coverage, reimbursement levels and pricing policies.

•Recently enacted legislation, future legislation and healthcare reform measures may increase the difficulty and cost for our partners to obtain marketing approval for and commercialize product candidates developed by us.

•Compliance with European Union chemical regulations could be costly and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

•We rely on third parties to conduct our clinical trials and perform some of our research and preclinical studies, which if not satisfactorily carried out or fail to meet expected deadlines, may have an adverse effect on our business and prospects.

•We contract with third parties for the manufacturing and supply of product candidates, which supply may become limited or interrupted or may not be of satisfactory quality and quantity.

•Our efforts to prosecute, maintain, protect and/or defend our intellectual property rights may not be successful.

•Our ability to compete may decline if we do not adequately prosecute, maintain, protect and/or defend our proprietary technology, products or services or our intellectual property rights.

•Third parties may claim that we are infringing, violating or misappropriating their intellectual property rights, which may subject us to costly and time-consuming litigation and prevent us from developing or commercializing our technology, products or services.

•We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our intellectual property rights, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful.

•We may not be able to enforce our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

•If our biocatalysts are stolen, misappropriated or reverse engineered, others could use these biocatalysts to produce competing products.

•Confidentiality and non-use agreements with employees, consultants, advisors, and other third parties may not adequately prevent disclosures and non-use of trade secrets and other proprietary information.

•We are subject to anti-takeover provisions in our certificate of incorporation and bylaws and under Delaware law that could delay or prevent an acquisition of our company.

•Our quarterly or annual operating results may fluctuate in the future.

•We do not intend to pay cash dividends for the foreseeable future.

•If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or publish negative reports about our business, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

•We face risks associated with our international business.

•Market and economic conditions may negatively impact our business, financial condition, and share price.

•Business interruptions resulting from disasters or other disturbances could delay us in the process of developing our products and could disrupt our sales.

•We are dependent on information technology systems, infrastructure and data, and any failure of these systems could harm our business.

•Actual or perceived failures to comply with applicable data protection, privacy and security laws, regulations, standards and other requirements could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

•Evolving expectations around environmental, social and governance matters may expose us to reputational and other risks.

Risks Relating to Our Business and Strategy

We have a history of net losses and we may not achieve or maintain profitability.

We have incurred net losses since our inception, including losses of $33.6 million in 2022, $21.3 million in 2021 and $24.0 million in 2020. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of $421.3 million and $387.7 million, respectively. If we are unable to expand our business, through new or expanded collaborations, development of new products or services, or increased sales of existing products and services, our net losses may increase and we may never achieve profitability. In addition, some of our collaboration agreements, including our collaboration with Nestlé Health Science and Takeda, and our performance enzyme agreements, including the agreements with GSK, Merck and Novartis, provide for milestone payments, usage payments, and/or future royalty payments, which we will only receive if we and our collaborators develop and commercialize products. We also may fund development of additional proprietary performance enzymes and/or biotherapeutic products. There can be no assurance that any of these products will become commercially viable or that we will ever achieve profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. If we fail to achieve profitability, or if the time required to achieve profitability is longer than we anticipate, we may not be able to continue our business. Even if we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis.

We are dependent on our collaborators, and our failure to successfully manage these relationships could prevent us from developing and commercializing many of our products and achieving or sustaining profitability, and could lead to disagreements with our current or former collaborators.

Our ability to maintain and manage collaborations in our markets is fundamental to the success of our business. We currently have license agreements, research and development agreements, supply agreements and/or distribution agreements with various collaborators. For example, we have ongoing collaborations and agreements with GSK, Merck, Novartis, Nestlé Health Science and Takeda that are important to our business and financial results. We may have limited or no control over the amount or timing of resources that any collaborator is able or willing to devote to our partnered products or collaborative efforts. Any of our collaborators may fail to perform its obligations. These collaborators may breach or terminate their agreements with us or otherwise fail to conduct their collaborative activities successfully and in a timely manner. Further, our collaborators may not develop products arising out of our collaborative arrangements or devote sufficient resources to the development, manufacture, marketing or sale of these products. Moreover, disagreements with a collaborator could develop, and any conflict with a collaborator could lead to litigation and could reduce our ability to enter into future collaboration agreements and negatively impact our relationships with one or more existing collaborators. If any of these events occur, especially if they occur in our collaborations with GSK, Merck, Novartis, Nestlé Health Science or Takeda, or if we fail to maintain our agreements with our collaborators, we may not be able to commercialize our existing and potential products or grow our business or generate sufficient revenues to support our operations, we may not receive contemplated milestone payments and royalties under the collaboration, and we may be involved in litigation. Our collaboration opportunities could be harmed and our financial condition and results of operations could be negatively affected if:

•we do not achieve our research and development objectives under our collaboration agreements in a timely manner or at all;

•we develop products and processes or enter into additional collaborations that conflict with the business objectives of our other collaborators;

•we, our collaborators and/or our contract manufacturers do not receive the required regulatory and other approvals necessary for the commercialization of the applicable product;

•we disagree with our collaborators as to rights to intellectual property that are developed during the collaboration, or their research programs or commercialization activities;

•we are unable to manage multiple simultaneous collaborations;

•our collaborators or licensees are unable or unwilling to implement or use the technology or products that we provide or license to them;

•our collaborators become competitors of ours or enter into agreements with our competitors;

•our collaborators become unable or less willing to expend their resources on research and development or commercialization efforts due to general market conditions, their financial condition or other circumstances beyond our control; or

•our collaborators experience business difficulties, which could eliminate or impair their ability to effectively perform under our agreements.

Even after collaboration relationships expire or terminate, some elements of the collaboration may survive. For instance, certain rights, licenses and obligations of each party with respect to intellectual property and program materials may survive the expiration or termination of the collaboration. Disagreements or conflicts between and among the parties could develop even though the collaboration has ended. These disagreements or conflicts could result in expensive arbitration or litigation, which may not be resolved in our favor.

Finally, our business could be negatively affected if any of our collaborators or suppliers undergoes a change of control or were to otherwise assign the rights or obligations under any of our agreements.

Our biotherapeutic programs are early stage, highly regulated and expensive. Our ability to obtain additional development partners or additional funding for the programs, to advance our product candidates to clinical trials and to ultimately receive regulatory approvals is highly uncertain.

We are developing and have developed novel biotherapeutic candidates, including CDX-6114, the novel oral enzyme product candidate for the treatment of PKU that we licensed to Nestlé Health Science. We are also developing protein sequences for use in gene therapy products for Fabry Disease, Pompe Disease, an undisclosed blood factor deficiency and a certain undisclosed rare genetic disorder for Takeda. The successful development of biotherapeutic candidates involves many risks and uncertainties, requires long timelines and may lead to uncertain results. In addition, drug development is highly regulated and requires areas of expertise and capital resources we do not currently possess. In order to market a biologic product in the United States, we or our collaborators must undergo the following process required by the FDA:

•completion of extensive preclinical laboratory tests and preclinical animal studies, all performed in accordance with GLP requirements;

•submission to the FDA of an IND, which must become effective before human clinical studies may begin in the United States;

•approval by an independent IRB representing each clinical site before the clinical study may be initiated at the site;

•performance of adequate and well-controlled human clinical studies (generally divided into three phases) in accordance with GCP requirements to establish the safety, purity and potency (or efficacy) of the product candidate for each proposed indication;

•preparation of and submission to the FDA of a BLA after completion of all clinical studies;

•potential review of the product candidate by an FDA advisory committee;

•satisfactory completion of an FDA pre-approval inspection of the manufacturing facilities where the product candidate is produced to assess compliance with cGMP requirements; and

•FDA review and approval of a BLA prior to any commercial marketing or sale of the product in the United States.

If we fail to comply with applicable FDA or other regulatory requirements at any time during the drug development process, clinical testing, the approval process or after approval, we may become subject to administrative or judicial penalties, including the FDA’s refusal to approve a pending application, withdrawal of an approval, warning letters, product recalls and additional enforcement actions.

Our efforts to advance our biotherapeutic candidates that we develop are subject to numerous risks, including the following:

•The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and the results are inherently unpredictable. If we are ultimately unable to obtain regulatory approval for biotherapeutic product candidates, our business will be harmed. To obtain regulatory approval to market any product candidate, preclinical studies and costly and lengthy clinical trials are required, and the results of the studies and trials are highly uncertain. A failure of one or more preclinical or clinical trials can occur at any stage, and many companies that have believed their drug candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical and clinical testing have nonetheless failed to obtain marketing approval of their product candidates.

•We may find it difficult to enroll patients in our clinical trials for product candidates. Any enrollment difficulties could delay clinical trials and any potential product approval.

•We may experience difficulty or delay in obtaining the FDA’s acceptance of an IND for product candidates we may seek to enter into clinical development, which would delay initiation of Phase 1 clinical testing. Delays in the commencement or completion of clinical testing could significantly affect our product development costs or the product development costs of our present and any future collaborators. We do not know whether planned clinical trials will begin on time or be completed on schedule, if at all. The commencement and completion of clinical trials can be delayed for a number of reasons. For example, a clinical trial may be suspended or terminated by us, by the IRB of the institution in which such trial is being conducted, or by the FDA due to a number of factors, including unforeseen safety issues, changes in governmental regulations or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial.

•We have limited experience in drug development or regulatory matters related to drug development. As a result, we rely or will rely on third parties to conduct our preclinical and clinical studies, assist us with drug manufacturing and formulation and perform other tasks for us. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their responsibilities or comply with regulatory requirements, we may receive lower quality products or services, suffer reputational harm and not be able to obtain regulatory approval for product candidates.

•Our efforts to use CodeEvolver® protein engineering technology platform to generate new lead biotherapeutic candidates, whether under our collaborations with Nestlé Health Science, Takeda or otherwise, may not be successful in creating candidates of value.

•We will be exposed to potential product liability risks through the testing of experimental therapeutics in humans, which may expose us to substantial uninsured liabilities.

•Third parties may develop intellectual property that could limit our ability to develop, market and commercialize product candidates.

•Changes in methods of treatment of disease, such as gene therapy, could cause us to stop development of our product candidates or reduce or eliminate potential demand for CDX-6114, if approved, or any other product candidates that we may develop in the future.

If either Nestlé Health Science or Takeda terminate their development programs under their respective license agreements with us, any potential revenue from those license agreements will be significantly reduced or non-existent, and our results of operations and financial condition will be materially and adversely affected.

We have invested significant time and financial resources in the development of CDX-6114 and other product candidates for the treatment of hyperphenylalaninemia now included in the Nestlé License Agreement as well as in the development of candidates for the treatment of Fabry disease and Pompe disease which are now included in the Takeda Agreement.

Under the Nestlé License Agreement, we are eligible to receive payments from Nestlé Health Science that include (i) development and approval milestones of up to $85.0 million, (ii) sales-based milestones of up to $250.0 million in the aggregate, which aggregate amount is achievable if net sales exceed $1.0 billion in a single year, and (iii) tiered royalties, at percentages ranging from the mid-single digits to low double-digits, of net sales of product. Under the Takeda Agreement, we are eligible to earn potential payments that include (i) reimbursement of research and development fees and preclinical development milestone payments for the three initial programs of $10.5 million, in aggregate, and $3.4 million for the fourth program, (ii) clinical development and commercialization-based milestone, per target gene, of up to $104.0 million, and (iii) tiered royalty payments based on net sales of applicable products at percentages ranging from the mid-single digits to low single-digits. While we have received milestone payments under the Nestlé License Agreement to date there is no guarantee that we will receive further milestone payments under the Nestlé Agreement or Takeda Agreement in the future.

Under the Nestle Agreement and the Takeda Agreement, either Nestlé Health Science and Takeda, as applicable, may each terminate the entire agreement or specified programs thereunder at will under certain circumstances as described in more detail under “Item 1. Business--Our Market Opportunities--Pharmaceutical Market--Our Solutions for the Pharmaceutical Market--Biotherapeutic Product Discovery and Development” in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

If Nestlé Health Science terminates its rights and obligations with respect to the Nestlé License Agreement and/or Takeda terminates its rights and obligations with respect to the Takeda Agreement, then depending on the timing of such event:

•the development of our product candidates subject to the respective agreements may be terminated or significantly delayed;

•our cash expenditures could increase significantly if it is necessary for us to hire additional employees and allocate scarce resources to the development and commercialization of product candidates;

•we would bear all of the risks and costs related to the further development and commercialization of product candidates that were previously the subject of the respective agreements, including the reimbursement of third parties; and

•in order to fund further development and commercialization of new product candidates or programs, we may need to seek out and establish alternative collaboration arrangements with third-party partners; this may not be possible, or we may not be able to do so on terms which are acceptable to us, in which case it may be necessary for us to limit the size or scope of one or more of our programs or increase our expenditures and seek additional funding by other means.

We may need additional capital in the future in order to expand our business.

Our future capital requirements may be substantial, particularly as we continue to develop our business. Although we believe that, based on our current level of operations, our existing cash, cash equivalents and equity securities will provide adequate funds for ongoing operations, planned capital expenditures and working capital requirements for at least the next 12 months, we may need additional capital if our current plans and assumptions change. Our need for additional capital will depend on many factors, including the financial success of our performance enzyme business, our spending to develop and commercialize new and existing products and the amount of collaboration funding we may receive to help cover the cost of such expenditures, the effect of any acquisitions of other businesses, technologies or facilities that we may make or develop in the future, our spending on new market opportunities, including opportunities in the biotherapeutics markets, and the filing, prosecution, enforcement and defense of patent claims. If our capital resources are insufficient to meet our capital requirements, and we are unable to enter into or maintain collaborations with partners that are able or willing to fund our development efforts or commercialize any products that we develop or enable, we will have to raise additional funds to continue the development of our technology and products and complete the commercialization of products, if any, resulting from our technologies.

In addition, we may choose to raise additional capital due to market conditions or strategic considerations, such as funding investments in our biotherapeutics business, even if we believe we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans. We may seek to obtain such additional capital through equity offerings, debt financings, credit facilities and/or strategic collaborations. If future financings involve the issuance of equity securities, our existing stockholders would suffer dilution. If we raise debt financing or enter into credit facilities, we may be subject to restrictive covenants that limit our ability to conduct our business. Strategic collaborations may also place restrictions on our business. We may not be able to raise sufficient additional funds on terms that are favorable to us, if at all. If we fail to raise sufficient funds and fail to generate sufficient revenues to achieve planned gross margins and to control operating costs, our ability to fund our operations, take advantage of strategic opportunities, develop products or technologies, or otherwise respond to competitive pressures could be significantly limited. If this happens, we may be forced to delay or terminate research or development programs or the commercialization of products resulting from our technologies, curtail or cease operations or obtain funds through collaborative and licensing arrangements that may require us to relinquish commercial rights, or grant licenses on terms that are not favorable to us. If adequate funds are not available, we will not be able to successfully execute our business plan or continue our business.

We are dependent on a limited number of customers.

Our current revenues are derived from a limited number of key customers. For the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, customers that each individually contributed 10% or more of our total revenue accounted for 56% and 44% of our total revenues in 2022 and 2021, respectively. We expect a limited number of customers to continue to account for a significant portion of our revenues for the foreseeable future. This customer concentration increases the risk of quarterly fluctuations in our revenues and operating results. The loss or reduction of business from one or a combination of our significant customers could, materially adversely affect our revenues, financial condition and results of operations.

Our product supply agreements with customers have finite duration, may not be extended or renewed and generally do not require the customer to purchase any particular quantity or quantities of our products.

Our product supply agreements with customers generally have a finite duration, may not be extended or renewed and generally do not require the customer to purchase any particular quantity or quantities of our products. While our products are not considered commodities and may not be easily substituted for by our customers, particularly when our products are used in the manufacture of active pharmaceutical ingredients, our customers may nevertheless terminate or fail to renew their product supply agreements with us or significantly curtail their purchases thereunder under certain circumstances. Any such termination or reduction could materially adversely affect our revenues, financial condition and results of operations. For the year ended December 31, 2022, we derived a majority of our product revenue from these product supply agreements.

With respect to customers purchasing our products for the manufacture of active pharmaceutical ingredients (“API”) for which they have exclusivity due to patent protection, the termination or expiration of such patent protection and any resulting generic competition may materially and adversely affect our revenues, financial condition or results of operations.

With respect to customers purchasing our products for the manufacture of API, or lead to the manufacture of API, for which exclusivity due to patent protection has or is about to expire, we can expect that the quantity of our products sold to such customers for such products may decline as generic competition for the API increases. While we anticipate that we may, in some cases, also be able to sell products to these generic competitors for the manufacture of these APIs, or lead to the manufacture of these APIs, the overall effect on our revenues, financial condition and results of operations could be materially adverse.

We are dependent on a limited number of contract manufacturers for large scale production of substantially all of our enzymes, including CDX-616. We are working to qualify new contract manufacturers to produce certain of our enzymes, including CDX-616, however those efforts may not be successful and therefore we may experience limitations on our ability to supply our enzymes to customers.

Manufacturing of our enzymes is conducted primarily in four locations: our in-house facility in Redwood City, California, and at three third-party contract manufacturing organizations, Lactosan GmbH & Co. KG (“Lactosan”), in Kapfenberg, Austria, ACS Dobfar S.p.A. (“ACSD”) (formerly known as DPhar S.p.A.), in Anagni, Italy, and Alphazyme LLC in Florida, United States. Generally, we perform smaller scale manufacturing in-house and outsource the larger scale manufacturing to these contract manufacturers. We have limited internal capacity to manufacture enzymes. As a result, we are dependent upon the performance and capacity of third-party manufacturers for the larger scale manufacturing of the enzymes used in our pharmaceutical and life sciences businesses.

Accordingly, we face risks of difficulties with, and interruptions in, performance by third party manufacturers, the occurrence of which could adversely impact the availability, launch and/or sales of our enzymes in the future. Enzyme manufacturing capacity limitations at our third-party manufacturers and manufacturing delays could negatively affect our business, reputation, results of operations and financial condition. The failure of any contract manufacturer to supply us our required volumes of enzyme on a timely basis, or to manufacture our enzymes in compliance with our specifications or applicable quality requirements or in volumes sufficient to meet demand, would adversely affect our ability to sell pharmaceutical and fine and complex chemicals products, could harm our relationships with our collaborators or customers and could negatively affect our revenues and operating results. We may be forced to secure alternative sources of supply, which may be unavailable on commercially acceptable terms, and could cause delays in our ability to deliver products to our customers, increase our costs and decrease our profit margins.

We currently have supply agreements in place with Lactosan, ACSD and Alphazyme. In the absence of a supply agreement, a contract manufacturer will be under no obligation to manufacture our enzymes and could elect to discontinue their manufacture at any time. If we require additional manufacturing capacity and are unable to obtain it in sufficient quantity, we may not be able to increase our product sales, or we may be required to make substantial capital investments to build that capacity or to contract with other manufacturers on terms that may be less favorable than the terms we currently have with our suppliers. If we choose to build our own additional manufacturing facility, it could take two years or longer before our facility is able to produce commercial volumes of our enzymes. Any resources we expend on acquiring or building internal manufacturing capabilities could be at the expense of other potentially more profitable opportunities. In addition, if we contract with other manufacturers, we may experience delays of several months in qualifying them, which could harm our relationships with our collaborators or customers and could negatively affect our revenues or operating results.

If we are unable to develop and commercialize new products for the pharmaceutical, biotherapeutics, diagnostics and life science tools markets, our business and prospects will be harmed.

We plan to launch new products for the pharmaceutical, biotherapeutics, diagnostics and other life science tools markets. These efforts are subject to numerous risks, including the following:

•customers in these markets may be reluctant to adopt new manufacturing processes that use our enzymes;

•we may be unable to successfully develop the enzymes or manufacturing processes for our products in a timely and cost-effective manner, if at all;

•we may face difficulties in transferring the developed technologies to our customers and the contract manufacturers that we may use for commercial scale production of intermediates and enzymes in these markets;

•the contract manufacturers that we may use may be unable to scale their manufacturing operations to meet the demand for these products and we may be unable to secure additional manufacturing capacity;

•customers may not be willing to purchase these products for these markets from us on favorable terms, if at all;

•we may face product liability litigation, unexpected safety or efficacy concerns and product recalls or withdrawals;

•our customers’ products may experience adverse events or face competition from new products, which would reduce demand for our products;

•we may face pressure from existing or new competitive products; and

•we may face pricing pressures from existing or new competitors, some of which may benefit from government subsidies or other incentives.

Competitors and potential competitors who have greater resources and experience than we do may develop products and technologies that make ours obsolete or may use their greater resources to gain market share at our expense.

The biocatalysis industry and each of our target markets are characterized by rapid technological change. Our future success will depend on our ability to maintain a competitive position with respect to technological advances. In addition, as we enter new markets, we will face new competition and will need to adapt to competitive factors that may be different from those we face today.

We are aware that other companies, including Royal DSM, N.V. (“DSM”), BASF, Bayer and Novozymes have alternative methods for obtaining and generating genetic diversity or use mutagenesis techniques to produce genetic diversity. Academic institutions such as the California Institute of Technology, the Max Planck Institute and the Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology are also working in this field. Technological development by others may result in our technology, products and services, as well as products developed by our customers using our biocatalysts, becoming obsolete.

Our primary competitors in the performance enzymes for pharmaceutical products are companies marketing either conventional, non-enzymatic processes or biocatalytic enzymes to manufacturers of pharmaceutical intermediates and APIs, and also existing in-house technologies (both biocatalysts and conventional catalysts) within our client and potential client companies. The principal methods of competition and competitive differentiation in this market are price, product quality and performance, including manufacturing yield, safety and environmental benefits, and speed of delivery of product. Pharmaceutical manufacturers that use biocatalytic processes can face increased competition from manufacturers that use more conventional processes and/or manufacturers that are based in regions (such as India and China) with lower regulatory, safety and environmental costs.

The market for the manufacture and supply of APIs and intermediates is large with many established companies. These companies include many of our large innovator and generic pharmaceutical customers, such as Merck, GSK, Novartis, Pfizer, Bristol-Myers, Kyorin, Urovant and Teva which have significant internal research and development efforts directed at developing processes to manufacture APIs and intermediates. The processes used by these companies include classical conventional organic chemistry reactions, chemo catalytic reactions, biocatalytic reactions or combinations thereof. Our biocatalytic based manufacturing processes must compete with these internally developed routes. Additionally, we also face competition from companies developing and marketing conventional catalysts such as Solvias Inc., BASF and Takasago International Corporation.

The market for supplying enzymes for use in pharmaceutical manufacturing is quite fragmented. There is competition from large industrial enzyme companies, such as Novozymes and DuPont, as well as subsidiaries of larger contract research/contract manufacturing organizations, such as DSM, Cambrex Corporation, Lonza, WuXi STA and Almac Group Ltd. Some fermentation pathway design companies, like Ginkgo Bioworks (who recently acquired Zymergen), whose traditional focus has been to design microorganisms that express small molecule chemicals, could extend into designing organisms that express enzymes. There is also competition in the enzyme customization and optimization area from several smaller companies, such as BRAIN AG, Arzeda, c-LEcta GmbH and Evocatal GmbH.

We entered the fine chemicals market in 2013, by applying our protein engineering technology in the food market. We face similar forms of competition in this market as in the pharmaceutical markets with the exception that the risk of losing opportunities to larger competitors in fine chemicals is greater given the larger scale of opportunities available in the fine chemicals market compared to the pharmaceutical market. Our significant competitors in the fine chemicals markets include companies that have been in these marketplaces for many years, such as DuPont Industrial Biosciences (“DuPont Genencor”), DSM, Novozymes and A.B. Enzymes. These companies have greater resources in these markets than we do and have long-term supply arrangements already in place with customers. Our ability to compete in these markets may be limited by our relatively late entrance. We also face competition in both the fine chemicals and pharmaceutical markets from emerging companies offering whole cell metabolic pathway approaches to these markets.

There are numerous companies that participate in the biotherapeutics market generally and the PKU market specifically. Many of these companies are large, successful and well-capitalized. BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc. (“BioMarin”) and Daiichi Sankyo Company market Kuvan® in the United States, Europe and Japan for the treatment of a certain type of PKU. In addition, BioMarin gained US FDA approval in 2018 and began commercial sales of PalynziqTM as an injectable enzyme substitution therapy for the potential treatment of PKU. Several companies, i.e., Synlogic, Homology Medicines and Rubius have reported clinical efforts to develop biotherapeutic candidates for PKU. Beyond targeting PKU, Takeda (who acquired Shire Plc in 2019), Genzyme / Sanofi S.A., BioMarin and other companies market or are actively developing new enzyme therapeutics. There are numerous companies that are developing other forms of therapeutics, such as small molecules, gene therapies, as well as therapies based on gene editing, which could compete with biotherapeutics.

Our ability to compete successfully in any of these markets will depend on our ability to develop proprietary products that reach the market in a timely manner and are technologically superior to and/or are less expensive than other products on the market. Many of our competitors have substantially greater production, financial, research and development, personnel and marketing resources than we do. They also started developing products earlier than we did, which may allow them to establish blocking intellectual property positions or bring products to market before we can. In addition, certain of our competitors may also benefit from local government subsidies and other incentives that are not available to us. As a result, our competitors may be able to develop competing and/or superior technologies and processes, and compete more aggressively and sustain that competition over a longer period of time than we could. Our technologies and products may be rendered obsolete or uneconomical by technological advances or entirely different approaches developed by one or more of our competitors. We cannot be certain that any products we develop in the future will compare favorably to products offered by our competitors or that our existing or future products will compare favorably to any new products that are developed by our competitors. As more companies develop new intellectual property in our markets, the possibility of a competitor acquiring patent or other rights that may limit our products or potential products increases, which could lead to litigation.

Our limited resources relative to many of our competitors may cause us to fail to anticipate or respond adequately to new developments and other competitive pressures. This failure could reduce our competitiveness and market share, adversely affect our results of operations and financial position, and prevent us from obtaining or maintaining profitability.

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has adversely affected and may continue in the future to, directly or indirectly, adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had, and continues to have, a significant impact globally, prompting governments and businesses to take unprecedented measures in response. In the United States, the COVID-19 pandemic has and may continue in the future to, directly or indirectly, adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition, including as a result of compliance with governmental orders governing the operation of businesses during the pandemic, the temporary closure of our Redwood City, California facilities from mid-March 2020 through the end of April 2020 and disruption of our research and development operations.

In the future, our business could be materially adversely affected, directly or indirectly, by the widespread outbreak of contagious disease, including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. National, state and local governments in affected regions have implemented and may continue to implement safety precautions, including quarantines, border closures, increased border controls, travel restrictions, governmental orders and shutdowns, business closures, cancellations of public gatherings and other measures. Organizations and individuals are taking additional steps to avoid or reduce infection, including limiting travel and staying home from work. These measures are disrupting normal business operations both in and outside of affected areas and have had significant negative impacts on businesses and financial markets worldwide.

The potential impact and duration of COVID-19 or another pandemic or public health crisis has had and could continue to have, significant repercussions across regional, national and global economies and financial markets, and could trigger a period of regional, national and global economic slowdown or regional, national or global recessions. The outbreak of COVID-19 in many countries continues to adversely impact regional, national and global economic activity and has contributed to significant volatility and negative pressure in financial markets. As a result, we may experience difficulty accessing debt and equity capital on attractive terms, or at all, due to the severe disruption and instability in the global financial markets. In addition, our customers may terminate or amend their agreements for the purchase of our technology, products and services due to bankruptcy, lack of liquidity, lack of funding, operational failures or other reasons.

Revenues in in future years from our sales of CDX-616 to Pfizer are subject to a number of factors which are outside of our control and may not materialize.

Starting the first and second quarters of 2021, we began to receive purchase orders from Pfizer, Inc. (“Pfizer”) for large quantities of our proprietary enzyme product, CDX-616, for use by Pfizer in the manufacture of a critical intermediate for its proprietary active pharmaceutical ingredient, nirmatrelvir. Pfizer markets, sells and distributes nirmatrelvir, in combination with the active pharmaceutical ingredient ritonavir, as its PAXLOVID™ (nirmatrelvir tablets; ritonavir tablets) product, which received emergency use authorization (“EUA”) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”) in late 2021 for the treatment of mild-to-moderate COVID-19 in adults and pediatric patients (12 years of age and older weighing at least 40 kg) with positive results of direct severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (“SARS-CoV-2”) viral testing, and who are at high risk for progression to severe COVID-19, including hospitalization or death.

The FDA has the authority to issue an EUA under certain circumstances, such as during a public health emergency, pursuant to a declaration by the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (“HHS”), that an emergency exists justifying the issuance of EUAs for certain types of products (referred to as EUA declarations). On March 27, 2020, the Secretary of HHS declared that circumstances exist justifying authorization of drugs and biologics during the COVID-19 pandemic, subject to the terms of any EUA that is issued for a specific product. Once an EUA declaration has been issued, the FDA can issue EUAs for products that fall within the scope of that declaration. To issue an EUA, the FDA Commissioner must conclude that (1) the chemical, biological, radioactive or nuclear agent (“CBRN”) that is referred to in the EUA declaration can cause serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions; (2) based on the totality of scientific evidence available, it is reasonable to believe that the product may be effective in diagnosing, treating, or preventing the disease or condition attributable to the CBRN and that the product’s known and potential benefits outweigh its known and potential risks; and (3) there is no adequate, approved, and available alternative to the product. the authorization to market products under an EUA is limited to the period of time the EUA declaration is in effect, and the FDA can revoke an EUA in certain circumstances. The FDA’s policies regarding an EUA can change unexpectedly. We cannot predict how long Pfizer’s EUA will remain in place. The FDA’s policies regarding products used to diagnose, treat or mitigate COVID-19 remain in flux as the FDA responds to new and evolving public health information and clinical evidence. Therefore, it is possible that Pfizer’s EUA may be revoked, which could adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Revenues in 2023 and in future years from our sales of CDX-616 to Pfizer and other potential customers (including sublicensees of Pfizer technology from The Medicines Patent Pool (the “MPP”)) are subject to a number of factors which are outside of our control, including, without limitation, the following, all of which could reduce or eliminate our sales of CDX-616, and therefore materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition:

•Pfizer has no future binding commitment to purchase any particular quantity or quantities of CDX-616 from us, and we are dependent upon Pfizer continuing to place orders with us (whether on a spot basis or under a long term agreement, when and if executed) for their requirements, if any, for CDX-616;

•to our knowledge, sublicensees of Pfizer technology from the MPP have no obligation to purchase CDX-616 from us under their sublicenses with the MPP;

•the EUA granted by the FDA for the use of PAXLOVID™ for the treatment of COVID-19 infections in humans could be withdrawn at any time;

•future vaccine development and usage and the development and usage of other new therapies for the treatment or elimination of COVID-19 may eliminate or reduce demand for PAXLOVID™;

•new variants of COVID-19 may emerge which PAXLOVID™ is not effective in treating;

•Pfizer may not ultimately receive full marketing authorization for PAXLOVID™ from the FDA and other international regulatory authorities;

•Pfizer could reformulate or make changes in the manufacturing process for nirmatrelvir which would eliminate or reduce demand for the use of CDX-616 in its manufacture;

•sublicensees of Pfizer technology for the manufacture, sale and distribution of PAXLOVID™ from the MPP may not utilize CDX-616 in the manufacture of nirmatrelvir;

•national and regional governmental authorities (including those of the United States government) may mandate that raw materials and intermediates used in the manufacture of PAXLOVID™ to be marketed, sold and distributed within the borders of that country be domestically produced, which could eliminate or reduce demand for the use of CDX-616 in such country; and

•we may be unable (because of lack of available manufacturing capacity at our contract manufacturers, supply chain disruptions or an inability to obtain applicable regulatory approvals) to manufacture the quantities of CDX-616 that Pfizer may desire to purchase from us.

We have investments in non-marketable securities, which may subject us to significant impairment charges.

We have investments in illiquid non-marketable equity securities acquired in private transactions. At December 31, 2022, 8.2% of our consolidated assets consisted of investment securities, which are illiquid investments. Investments in illiquid, or non-marketable, securities are inherently risky and difficult to value. We account for our non-marketable equity securities under the measurement alternative. Under the measurement alternative, the carrying value of our non-marketable equity investments is adjusted to fair value for observable transactions for identical or similar investments of the same issuer or impairment. We evaluate our investment in non-marketable securities when circumstances indicate that we may not be able to recover the carrying value. We may impair these securities and establish an allowance for a credit loss when we determine that there has been an “other-than-temporary” decline in estimated fair value of the equity security compared to its carrying value. The impairment analysis requires significant judgment to identify events or circumstances that would likely have a material adverse effect on the fair value of the investment. Because over 5% of our total assets consisted of non-marketable investment securities, any future impairment charges from the write down in value of these securities could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition or results of operations.

Ethical, legal and social concerns about genetically engineered products and processes could limit or prevent the use of our technology, products and processes and limit our revenues.

Some of our technology, products and services are genetically engineered or involve the use of genetically engineered products or genetic engineering technologies. If we and/or our collaborators are not able to overcome the ethical, legal, and social concerns relating to genetic engineering, our technology, products and services may not be accepted. Any of the risks discussed below could result in increased expenses, delays, or other impediments to our programs or the public acceptance and commercialization of products and processes dependent on our technologies or inventions. Our ability to develop and commercialize one or more of our technologies, products, or processes could be limited by the following factors:

•public attitudes about the safety and environmental hazards of, and ethical concerns over, genetic research and genetically engineered products and processes, which could influence public acceptance of our technologies, products and processes;

•public attitudes regarding, and potential changes to laws governing ownership of genetic material, which could harm our intellectual property rights with respect to our genetic material and discourage collaborators from supporting, developing, or commercializing our technology, products and services; and

•governmental reaction to negative publicity concerning genetically modified organisms, which could result in greater government regulation of genetic research and derivative products.

The subject of genetically modified organisms has received negative publicity, which has aroused public debate. This adverse publicity could lead to greater regulation and trade restrictions on imports of genetically altered products. The biocatalysts that we develop have significantly enhanced characteristics compared to those found in naturally occurring enzymes or microbes. While we produce our biocatalysts only for use in a controlled industrial environment, the release of such biocatalysts into uncontrolled environments could have unintended consequences. Any adverse effect resulting from such a release could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition, and we may have exposure to liability for any resulting harm.

We use hazardous materials in our business and we must comply with environmental laws and regulations. Any claims relating to improper handling, storage or disposal of these materials or noncompliance of applicable laws and regulations could be time consuming and costly and could adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Our research and development and commercial processes involve the use of hazardous materials, including chemical, radioactive and biological materials. Our operations also produce hazardous waste. We cannot eliminate entirely the risk of accidental contamination or discharge and any resultant injury from these materials. Federal, state, local and foreign laws and regulations govern the use, manufacture, storage, handling and disposal of, and human exposure to, these materials. We may be sued for any injury or contamination that results from our use or the use by third parties of these materials, and our liability may exceed our total assets. Although we believe that our activities comply in all material respects with environmental laws, there can be no assurance that violations of environmental, health and safety laws will not occur in the future as a result of human error, accident, equipment failure or other causes. Compliance with applicable environmental laws and regulations may be expensive, and the failure to comply with past, present or future laws could result in the imposition of fines, third party property damage, product liability and personal injury claims, investigation and remediation costs, the suspension of production or a cessation of operations, and our liability may exceed our total assets. Liability under environmental laws can be joint and several and without regard to comparative fault. Environmental laws could become more stringent over time imposing greater compliance costs and increasing risks and penalties associated with violations, which could impair our research, development or production efforts and harm our business. In addition, we may have to indemnify some of our customers or suppliers for losses related to our failure to comply with environmental laws, which could expose us to significant liabilities.

Our ability to use our net operating loss carryforwards to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

In general, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change net operating loss carryforwards (“NOLs”), to offset future taxable income. If the Internal Revenue Service challenges our analysis that our existing NOLs are not subject to limitations arising from previous ownership changes, our ability to utilize NOLs could be limited by Section 382 of the Code. Future changes in our stock ownership, some of which are outside of our control, could result in an ownership change under Section 382 of the Code. Furthermore, our ability to utilize NOLs of companies that we may acquire in the future may be subject to limitations. For these reasons, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of the NOLs reflected in our financial statements, even if we attain profitability.

As a public reporting company, we are subject to rules and regulations established from time to time by the SEC and Nasdaq regarding our internal controls over financial reporting. We may not complete needed improvements to our internal controls over financial reporting in a timely manner, or these internal controls may not be determined to be effective, which may adversely affect investor confidence in our company and, as a result, the value of our common stock and your investment.

We are subject to the rules and regulations established from time to time by the Securities and Exchange Commission, and Nasdaq. These rules regulations require, among other things, that we establish and periodically evaluate procedures with respect to our internal controls over financial reporting. As part of these evaluations, material weaknesses in our internal controls over financial reporting may be identified. A material weakness is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal controls over financial reporting such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of a company’s annual or interim consolidated financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. While we were able to remediate previously identified material weaknesses in our internal controls over financial reporting, there can be no guarantee we will not identify similar or other material weaknesses in the future and if such material weaknesses are identified, there can be no guarantee we would be able to remediate such material weaknesses. Any material weaknesses in our internal controls may adversely affect our ability to record, process, summarize and accurately report timely financial information and, as a result, our consolidated financial statements may contain material misstatements or omissions.

Reporting obligations as a public company place a considerable strain on our financial and management systems, processes and controls, as well as on our personnel. In addition, as a public company we are required to document and test our internal controls over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act so that our management can certify as to the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting. Likewise, our independent registered public accounting firm is required to provide an attestation report on the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting in our Annual Reports on Form 10-K. If our management is unable to certify the effectiveness of our internal controls or if our independent registered public accounting firm cannot deliver a report attesting to the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting, or if we identify or fail to remediate material weaknesses in our internal controls, we could be subject to regulatory scrutiny and a loss of public confidence, which could seriously harm our reputation and the market price of our common stock. In addition, if we do not maintain adequate financial and management personnel, processes and controls, we may not be able to manage our business effectively or accurately report our financial performance on a timely basis, which could cause a decline in our common stock price and may seriously harm our business.

If we engage in any acquisitions, we will incur a variety of costs and may potentially face numerous risks that could adversely affect our business and operations.

We have made acquisitions in the past, and if appropriate opportunities become available, we expect to acquire additional businesses, assets, technologies, or products to enhance our business in the future. For example, in October 2010, we acquired substantially all of the patents and other intellectual property rights associated with Maxygen’s directed evolution technology.

In connection with any future acquisitions, we could:

•issue additional equity securities, which would dilute our current stockholders;

•incur substantial debt to fund the acquisitions;

•use our cash to fund the acquisitions; or

•assume significant liabilities including litigation risk.

Acquisitions involve numerous risks, including problems integrating the purchased operations, technologies or products, unanticipated costs and other liabilities, diversion of management’s attention from our core businesses, adverse effects on existing business relationships with current and/or prospective collaborators, customers and/or suppliers, risks associated with entering markets in which we have no or limited prior experience and potential loss of key employees. We do not have extensive experience in managing the integration process and we may not be able to successfully integrate any businesses, assets, products, technologies or personnel that we might acquire in the future without a significant expenditure of operating, financial and management resources, if at all. The integration process could divert management’s time from focusing on operating our business, result in a decline in employee morale and cause retention issues to arise from changes in compensation, reporting relationships, future prospects or the direction of the business. Acquisitions may also require us to record goodwill and non-amortizable intangible assets that will be subject to impairment testing on a regular basis and potential periodic impairment charges, incur amortization expenses related to certain intangible assets, and incur large and immediate write offs and restructuring and other related expenses, all of which could harm our operating results and financial condition. In addition, we may acquire companies that have insufficient internal financial controls, which could impair our ability to integrate the acquired company and adversely impact our financial reporting. If we fail in our integration efforts with respect to any of our acquisitions and are unable to efficiently operate as a combined organization, our business and financial condition may be adversely affected.

Risks Related to Government Regulation and Clinical Product Development

We or our customers may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for the use of our products in food and food ingredients, if required, and, even if approvals are obtained, complying on an ongoing basis with the numerous regulatory requirements applicable to these products will be time-consuming and costly.

The products that we develop for our food and food ingredient customers are, and any other products that we may develop for the food and food ingredients market will likely be, subject to regulation by various government agencies, including the FDA, state and local agencies and similar agencies outside the United States, as well as religious compliance certifying organizations. Food ingredients are regulated by the FDA either as food additives or as substances generally recognized as safe (“GRAS”). A substance can be listed or affirmed as GRAS by the FDA or self-affirmed by its manufacturer upon determination that independent qualified experts would generally agree that the substance is GRAS for a particular use. While we generally self-affirm GRAS status for the ingredients used in the products that we develop for the food market, our customer(s) may be required to submit a GRAS notification to FDA to establish that ingredients in a final commercial product may be considered GRAS. There can be no assurance that our customer(s) will not receive any objections from the FDA with respect to any GRAS notification our customer(s) may submit. If the FDA were to disagree with our customer’s determination that their commercial product and/or its ingredients are GRAS or otherwise compliant, the FDA could ask such customer to voluntarily withdraw the final commercial product from the market or could initiate legal action to halt its sale. Such actions by the FDA could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of our operations. Food ingredients that are not GRAS are regulated as food additives and require FDA approval prior to commercialization or must be the subject of an existing food additive regulation. The food additive petition process for ingredients that are not already authorized by regulation is generally expensive and time consuming, with approval, if secured, potentially taking years.

Our ongoing efforts to deploy our technology in the life science tools markets may fail.

We have recently begun to use our CodeEvolver® protein engineering technology platform to develop new products for customers using NGS and PCR/qPCR for in vitro molecular diagnostic applications. while we have entered into some license agreements for products in this market, we do not know if we can successfully compete in this new market. This new market is well established and consists of numerous large, well-funded entrenched market participants who have long and established track records and customer relationships. In December 2019, we licensed our first proprietary enzyme for this market, EvoT4™ DNA ligase, which is designed to improve library preparation for NGS users, to Roche. This enzyme, and any products that we may develop in the future for this market, may not succeed in displacing current products. If we succeed in commercializing new products for this market, we may not generate significant revenues and cash flows from these activities. The failure to successfully deploy products on timely basis in this space may limit our growth and have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, operating results and business prospects.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and inherently unpredictable, and if we are ultimately unable to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, our business will be substantially harmed.

We and any collaborators are not permitted to commercialize, market, promote or sell any product candidate in the United States without obtaining marketing approval from the FDA. Foreign regulatory authorities impose similar requirements. The time required to obtain approval by the FDA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable, but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. We and any collaborators must complete additional preclinical or nonclinical studies and clinical trials to demonstrate the safety, purity and potency (or efficacy) of our product candidates in humans to the satisfaction of the regulatory authorities before we will be able to obtain these approvals. Our product candidates could fail to receive regulatory approval for many reasons, including the following:

•the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may disagree with the design or implementation of our or our collaborators’ clinical trials;

•we or our collaborators may be unable to demonstrate to the satisfaction of the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities that a product candidate is safe and effective for its proposed indication;

•the results of clinical trials may not meet the level of statistical significance required by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities for approval;

•we or our collaborators may be unable to demonstrate that a product candidate’s clinical and other benefits outweigh its safety risks;

•the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may disagree with our or our collaborators’ interpretation of data from preclinical studies or clinical trials;

•the data collected from clinical trials of product candidates may not be sufficient to support the submission of a BLA to obtain regulatory approval in the United States or elsewhere;

•the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may fail to approve the manufacturing processes or facilities of third-party manufacturers with which we or our collaborators contract for clinical and commercial supplies;

•the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may fail to approve the companion diagnostics we contemplate developing with collaborators; and

•the approval policies or regulations of the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may significantly change in a manner rendering our or our collaborators’ clinical data insufficient for approval.

This lengthy approval process as well as the unpredictability of future clinical trial results may result in our failing to obtain regulatory approval to market our product candidates, which would significantly harm our business, results of operations and prospects. In addition, even if we were to obtain approval, regulatory authorities may approve any of our product candidates for fewer or more limited indications than we request, may impose significant limitations in the form of narrow indications, warnings, or a REMS. Regulatory authorities may not approve the price we or our collaborators intend to charge for products we may develop, may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical trials, or may approve a product candidate with a label that does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product candidate. Any of the foregoing scenarios could materially harm the commercial prospects for our product candidates.

Clinical trials are difficult to design and implement, expensive, time-consuming and involve an uncertain outcome, and the inability to successfully conduct clinical trials and obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates would substantially harm our business.

Clinical testing is expensive and usually takes many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical trial process, and product candidates in later stages of clinical trials may fail to show the desired safety and efficacy traits despite having progressed through preclinical studies and initial clinical trials. We do not know whether planned clinical trials will begin on time, need to be redesigned, recruit and enroll patients on time or be completed on schedule, or at all. Clinical trials can be delayed, suspended or terminated for a variety of reasons, including in connection with:

•the inability to generate sufficient preclinical, toxicology or other in vivo or in vitro data to support the initiation of clinical trials;

•applicable regulatory authorities disagreeing as to the design or implementation of the clinical trials;

•obtaining regulatory authorization to commence a trial;

•reaching an agreement on acceptable terms with prospective contract research organizations (“CROs”), and clinical trial sites, the terms of which can be subject to extensive negotiation and may vary significantly among different CROs and trial sites;

•obtaining IRB approval at each site;

•developing and validating the companion diagnostic to be used in a clinical trial, if applicable;

•insufficient or inadequate supply or quality of product candidates or other materials necessary for use in clinical trials, or delays in sufficiently developing, characterizing or controlling a manufacturing process suitable for clinical trials;

•recruiting and retaining enough suitable patients to participate in a trial;

•having enough patients complete a trial or return for post-treatment follow-up;

•adding a sufficient number of clinical trial sites;

•inspections of clinical trial sites or operations by applicable regulatory authorities, or the imposition of a clinical hold;

•clinical sites deviating from trial protocol or dropping out of a trial;

•the inability to demonstrate the efficacy and benefits of a product candidate;

•discovering that product candidates have unforeseen safety issues, undesirable side effects or other unexpected characteristics;

•addressing patient safety concerns that arise during the course of a trial; receiving untimely or unfavorable feedback from applicable regulatory authorities regarding the trial or requests from regulatory authorities to modify the design of a trial;

•non-compliance with applicable regulatory requirements by us or third parties or changes in such regulations or administrative actions;

•suspensions or terminations by IRBs of the institutions at which such trials are being conducted, by the Data Safety Monitoring Board for such trial or by the FDA or other regulatory authorities due to a number of factors, including those described above;

•third parties being unable or unwilling to satisfy their contractual obligations to us; or

•changes in our financial priorities, greater than anticipated costs of completing a trial or our inability to continue funding the trial.

Many of the factors that cause, or lead to, a delay in the commencement or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of our product candidates. Additionally, we or our collaborators may experience unforeseen events during or resulting from clinical trials that could delay or prevent receipt of marketing approval for or commercialization of product candidates. For example, clinical trials of product candidates may produce negative, inconsistent or inconclusive results, and we may decide, or regulators may require us, to conduct additional clinical trials or abandon development programs. Regulators may also revise the requirements for approving the product candidates, or such requirements may not be as we anticipate. If we or our collaborators are required to conduct additional clinical trials or other testing of product candidates beyond those that we or our collaborators currently contemplate, if we or our collaborators are unable to successfully complete clinical trials or other testing of such product candidates, if the results of these trials or tests are not positive or are only modestly positive or if there are safety concerns, we may:

•incur unplanned costs;

•be delayed in obtaining or fail to obtain marketing approval for product candidates;

•obtain marketing approval in some countries and not in others;

•obtain marketing approval for indications or patient populations that are not as broad as intended or desired;

•obtain marketing approval with labeling that includes significant use or distribution restrictions or safety warnings, including boxed warnings;

•be subject to additional post-marketing testing requirements;

•be subject to changes in the way the product is administered;

•have regulatory authorities withdraw or suspend their approval of the product or impose restrictions on its distribution;

•be sued; or

•experience damage to our reputation.

If we or our collaborators experience delays in the commencement or completion of our clinical trials, or if we or our collaborators terminate a clinical trial prior to completion, we may experience increased costs, have difficulty raising capital and/or be required to slow down the development and approval process timelines. Furthermore, the product candidates that are the subject of such trials may never receive regulatory approval, and their commercial prospects and our ability to generate product revenues from them could be impaired or not realized at all.

Results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials of product candidates may not be predictive of results of later studies or trials. Our product candidates may not have favorable results in later clinical trials, if any, or receive regulatory approval.

Preclinical and clinical drug development is expensive and can take many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the drug development process. Despite promising preclinical or clinical results, any product candidate can unexpectedly fail at any stage of preclinical or clinical development. The historical failure rate for product candidates in our industry is high. The results from preclinical studies or early clinical trials of a product candidate may not be predictive of the results from later preclinical studies or clinical trials, and interim results of a clinical trial are not necessarily indicative of final results. Product candidates in later stages of clinical trials may fail to show the desired safety and efficacy characteristics despite having progressed through preclinical studies and initial clinical trials.

Many companies in the biopharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have suffered significant setbacks at later stages of development after achieving positive results in early stages of development, and we may face similar setbacks. These setbacks have been caused by, among other things, preclinical findings made while clinical trials were underway or safety or efficacy observations made in clinical trials, including previously unreported adverse events. Moreover, non-clinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and many companies that believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials nonetheless failed to obtain regulatory approval. Even if any product candidates progress to clinical trials, these product candidates may fail to show the safety and efficacy in clinical development required to obtain regulatory approval, despite the observation of positive results in animal studies. Our or our collaborators’ failure to replicate positive results from early research programs and preclinical or greenhouse studies may prevent us from further developing and commercializing those or other product candidates, which would limit our potential to generate revenues from them and harm our business and prospects.

For the foregoing reasons, we cannot be certain that any ongoing or future preclinical studies or clinical trials will be successful. Any safety or efficacy concerns observed in any one of our preclinical studies or clinical trials in a targeted area could limit the prospects for regulatory approval of product candidates in that and other areas, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and prospects.

We may not be able to maintain orphan drug designations for certain of our product candidates, and may be unable to maintain the benefits associated with orphan drug designation, including the potential for market exclusivity.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the U.S. and Europe, may designate drugs for relatively small patient populations as orphan drugs. Under the Orphan Drug Act of 1983, the FDA may designate a product candidate as an orphan product if it is intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally defined as a patient population of fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S., or a patient population of greater than 200,000 individuals in the U.S., but for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing the drug will be recovered from sales in the U.S. The FDA has granted orphan drug designation to CDX-6512 for the treatment of HCU and to CDX-6210 for the treatment of Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD).

In the U.S., orphan designation entitles a party to financial incentives such as opportunities for grant funding for clinical trial costs, tax advantages and user-fee waivers. In addition, if a product candidate that has orphan designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for the disease for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan drug exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications, including a BLA, to market the same drug for the same disease or condition for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan exclusivity or where the manufacturer is unable to assure sufficient product quantity.

Even if we obtain orphan drug exclusivity for a product, that exclusivity may not effectively protect the product from competition because different drugs can be approved for the same disease condition. Even after an orphan drug is approved, the FDA can subsequently approve the same drug for the same disease condition if such regulatory authority concludes that the later drug is clinically superior if it is shown to be safer, more effective or makes a major contribution to patient care. Orphan drug designation neither shortens the development time or regulatory review time of a drug nor gives the drug any advantage in the regulatory review or approval process.

We have obtained rare pediatric disease designation for CDX-6512 and CDX-6120, however, there is no guarantee that such designation will result in approval of CDX-6512 or CDX-6210, and even if we obtain approval of CDX-6512 or CDX-6210 for the indications for which we have been awarded rare pediatric disease designation, there is no guarantee that such approval will result in an aware of a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher.

In 2012, Congress authorized the FDA to award priority review vouchers to sponsors of certain rare pediatric disease product applications. This program is designed to encourage development of new drug and biological products for the prevention and treatment of certain rare pediatric diseases. Specifically, under this program, a sponsor who receives an approval for a drug or biologic for a “rare pediatric disease” that meets certain criteria may qualify for a voucher that can be redeemed to receive a priority review of a subsequent marketing application for a different product, even if that subsequent marketing application would not otherwise qualify for priority review on its own. The sponsor of a rare pediatric disease product receiving a priority review voucher may transfer (including by sale) the voucher to another sponsor. The voucher may be further transferred any number of times before the voucher is used, as long as the sponsor making the transfer has not yet submitted the application. The FDA may also revoke any priority review voucher if the rare pediatric disease drug for which the voucher was awarded is not marketed in the U.S. within one year following the date of approval.

We have obtained rare pediatric disease designation for CDX-6512 for the treatment of HCU and for CDX-6210 for the treatment of MSUD. Even though we have obtained rare pediatric disease designations, there is no guarantee that we will be able to obtain a priority review voucher, even if CDX-6512 and/or CDX-6210 are approved by the FDA. Moreover, Congress included a sunset provision in the statute authorizing the rare pediatric disease priority review voucher program. On December 27, 2020, the Rare Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher Program was extended, and under the current statutory sunset provisions, after September 30, 2024, FDA may only award a voucher for an approved rare pediatric disease product application if the sponsor has rare pediatric disease designation for the drug, and that designation was granted by September 30, 2024. After September 30, 2026, FDA may not award any rare pediatric disease priority review vouchers (unless Congress amends the law to extend the program further).

Disruptions at the FDA and other government agencies caused by funding shortages or global health concerns could hinder their ability to hire, retain, or deploy key leadership and other personnel, or otherwise prevent new or modified products from being developed, approved, or commercialized in a timely manner, or at all, which could negatively impact our business.

The ability of the FDA and other government agencies to review and approve new products can be affected by a variety of factors, including government budget and funding levels, statutory, regulatory and policy changes, a government agency’s ability to hire and retain key personnel and accept the payment of user fees, and other events that may otherwise affect the government agency’s ability to perform routine functions. Average review times at the FDA and other government agencies have fluctuated in recent years as a result. In addition, government funding of other government agencies that fund research and development activities is subject to the political process, which is inherently fluid and unpredictable. Disruptions at the FDA and other agencies may also slow the time necessary for new drugs and biologics or modifications to approved drugs or biologics to be reviewed and/or approved by necessary government agencies, which would adversely affect our business. For example, over the last several years, the United States government has shut down several times and certain regulatory agencies, such as the FDA, have had to furlough critical FDA employees and stop critical activities.

Separately, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the FDA postponed most inspections of domestic and foreign manufacturing facilities at various points. Even though the FDA has since resumed standard inspection operations of domestic facilities where feasible, the FDA has continued to monitor and implement changes to its inspectional activities to ensure the safety of its employees and those of the firms it regulates as it adapts to the evolving COVID-19 pandemic, and any resurgence of the virus or emergence of new variants may lead to further inspectional delays. Regulatory authorities outside the United States may adopt similar restrictions or other policy measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. If a prolonged government shutdown occurs, or if global health concerns continue to hinder or prevent the FDA or other regulatory authorities from conducting their regular inspections, reviews, or other regulatory activities, it could significantly impact the ability of the FDA or other regulatory authorities to timely review and process our regulatory submissions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for any products that we develop alone or with collaborators, such products will remain subject to ongoing regulatory requirements, which may result in significant additional expense.

Even if products we develop alone or with collaborators receive regulatory approval, they will be subject to ongoing regulatory requirements for manufacturing, labeling, packaging, distribution, storage, advertising, promotion, sampling, record-keeping and submission of safety and other post-market information, among other things. Any regulatory approvals received for such products may also be subject to limitations on the approved indicated uses for which they may be marketed or to the conditions of approval, or contain requirements for potentially costly post-marketing testing and surveillance studies. For example, the holder of an approved BLA in the United States is obligated to monitor and report adverse events and any failure of a product to meet the specifications in the BLA. In the United States, the holder of an approved BLA must also submit new or supplemental applications and obtain FDA approval for certain changes to the approved product, product labeling or manufacturing process. Similar provisions apply in the European Union (the “EU”). Advertising and promotional materials must comply with FDA rules and are subject to FDA review, in addition to other potentially applicable federal and state laws. Similarly, in the EU any promotion of medicinal products is highly regulated and, depending on the specific jurisdiction involved, may require prior vetting by the competent national regulatory authority. In addition, product manufacturers and their facilities are subject to payment of user fees and continual review and periodic inspections by the FDA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with cGMP requirements and adherence to commitments made in the BLA or foreign marketing application.

If we, our collaborators or a regulatory agency discovers previously unknown problems with a product such as adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured or disagrees with the promotion, marketing or labeling of that product, a regulatory agency may impose restrictions relative to that product, the manufacturing facility or us or our collaborators, including requiring recall or withdrawal of the product from the market or suspension of manufacturing.

Moreover, if any of our product candidates are approved, our product labeling, advertising, promotion and distribution will be subject to regulatory requirements and continuing regulatory review. The FDA strictly regulates the promotional claims that may be made about drug products. In particular, a product may not be promoted for uses that are not approved by the FDA as reflected in the product’s approved labeling. If we or our collaborators fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements following approval of any potential products we may develop, authorities may:

•issue an untitled enforcement letter or a warning letter asserting a violation of the law;

•seek an injunction, impose civil and criminal penalties, and impose monetary fines, restitution or disgorgement of profits or revenues;

•suspend or withdraw regulatory approval;

•suspend or terminate any ongoing clinical trials or implement requirements to conduct post-marketing studies or clinical trials;

•refuse to approve a pending BLA or comparable foreign marketing application (or any supplements thereto) submitted by us or our collaborators;

•restrict the labeling, marketing, distribution, use or manufacturing of products;

•seize or detain products or otherwise require the withdrawal or recall of products from the market;

•refuse to approve pending applications or supplements to approved applications that we or our collaborators submit;

•refuse to permit the import or export of products; or

•refuse to allow us or our collaborators to enter into government contracts.

Any government investigation of alleged violations of law could require us to expend significant time and resources in response and could generate negative publicity. The occurrence of any event or penalty described above may inhibit our or our collaborators’ ability to commercialize products and our ability to generate revenues.

In addition, the FDA’s policies, and policies of foreign regulatory agencies, may change, and additional regulations may be enacted that could prevent, limit or delay regulatory approval of product candidates. We cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative or executive action, either in the United States or abroad. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may be subject to enforcement action and we may not achieve or sustain profitability.

Our business operations and future relationships with investigators, healthcare professionals, consultants, third-party payors, patient organizations and customers will be subject to applicable healthcare regulatory laws, which could expose us to penalties.

Our business operations and future arrangements with investigators, healthcare professionals, consultants, third-party payors, patient organizations and customers, may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations. These laws may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we will conduct our operations, including how we research, market, sell and distribute our product candidates, if approved. Such laws include:

•the U.S. federal Anti-Kickback Statute, which prohibits, among other things, persons or entities from knowingly and willfully soliciting, offering, receiving or providing any remuneration (including any kickback, bribe, or certain rebate), directly or indirectly, overtly or covertly, in cash or in kind, to induce or reward, or in return for, either the referral of an individual for, or the purchase, lease, order or recommendation of, any good, facility, item or service, for which payment may be made, in whole or in part, under U.S. federal and state healthcare programs such as Medicare and Medicaid. A person or entity does not need to have actual knowledge of the statute or specific intent to violate it in order to have committed a violation;

•the U.S. federal false claims laws, including the civil False Claims Act, which, among other things, impose criminal and civil penalties, including through civil whistleblower or qui tam actions, against individuals or entities for knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented, to the U.S. federal government, claims for payment or approval that are false or fraudulent, knowingly making, using or causing to be made or used, a false record or statement material to a false or fraudulent claim, or from knowingly making a false statement to avoid, decrease or conceal an obligation to pay money to the U.S. federal government. In addition, the government may assert that a claim including items and services resulting from a violation of the U.S. federal Anti-Kickback Statute constitutes a false or fraudulent claim for purposes of the False Claims Act;

•the U.S. federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (“HIPAA”), which imposes criminal and civil liability for, among other things, knowingly and willfully executing, or attempting to execute, a scheme to defraud any healthcare benefit program, or knowingly and willfully falsifying, concealing or covering up a material fact or making any materially false statement, in connection with the delivery of, or payment for, healthcare benefits, items or services; similar to the U.S. federal Anti-Kickback Statute, a person or entity does not need to have actual knowledge of the statute or specific intent to violate it in order to have committed a violation;

•the U.S. federal Physician Payments Sunshine Act, which requires certain manufacturers of drugs, devices, biologics and medical supplies that are reimbursable under Medicare, Medicaid, or the Children’s Health Insurance Program to report annually to the government information related to certain payments and other transfers of value to physicians (defined to include doctors, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists and chiropractors), certain non-physician practitioners such as physician assistants and nurse practitioners, and teaching hospitals, as well as ownership and investment interests held by the physicians described above and their immediate family members; and

•analogous U.S. state laws and regulations, including: state anti-kickback and false claims laws, which may apply to our future business practices, including but not limited to, research, distribution, sales and marketing arrangements and claims involving healthcare items or services reimbursed by any third-party payor, including private insurers; state laws that require pharmaceutical companies to comply with the pharmaceutical industry’s voluntary compliance guidelines and the relevant compliance guidance promulgated by the U.S. federal government, or otherwise restrict payments that may be made to healthcare providers and other potential referral sources; and state laws and regulations that require drug manufacturers to file reports relating to pricing and marketing information, which requires tracking gifts and other remuneration and items of value provided to healthcare professionals and entities.

Ensuring that our internal operations and future business arrangements with third parties comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations, agency guidance or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the laws described above or any other governmental laws and regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant penalties, including civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, exclusion from government-funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid or similar programs in other countries or jurisdictions, disgorgement, individual imprisonment, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations.

The successful commercialization of product candidates developed by us or our partners will depend in part on the extent to which governmental authorities and health insurers establish adequate coverage, reimbursement levels and pricing policies. Failure to obtain or maintain coverage and adequate reimbursement for such product candidates, if approved, could limit our or our partners’ ability to market those products and decrease our ability to generate revenue.

The availability and adequacy of coverage and reimbursement by governmental healthcare programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, private health insurers and other third-party payors are essential for most patients to be able to afford prescription medications such as our product candidates, assuming FDA approval. Our ability to achieve acceptable levels of coverage and reimbursement for products by governmental authorities, private health insurers and other organizations will have an effect on our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates. Assuming we obtain coverage for our product candidates by a third-party payor, the resulting reimbursement payment rates may not be adequate or may require co-payments that patients find unacceptably high. We cannot be sure that coverage and reimbursement in the United States, the EU or elsewhere will be available for our product candidates or any product that we may develop, and any reimbursement that may become available may be decreased or eliminated in the future.

Third-party payors increasingly are challenging prices charged for pharmaceutical products and services, and many third-party payors may refuse to provide coverage and reimbursement for particular drugs or biologics when an equivalent generic drug, biosimilar or a less expensive therapy is available. It is possible that a third-party payor may consider our product candidates as substitutable and only offer to reimburse patients for the less expensive product. Even if we show improved efficacy or improved convenience of administration with our product candidates, pricing of existing third-party therapeutics may limit the amount we will be able to charge for our product candidates. These payors may deny or revoke the reimbursement status of a given product or establish prices for new or existing marketed products at levels that are too low to enable us to realize an appropriate return on our investment in our product candidates. For products administered under the supervision of a physician, obtaining coverage and adequate reimbursement may be particularly difficult because of the higher prices often associated with such drugs. Additionally, separate reimbursement for the product itself or the treatment or procedure in which the product is used may not be available, which may impact physician utilization. If reimbursement is not available or is available only at limited levels, we may not be able to successfully commercialize our product candidates, and may not be able to obtain a satisfactory financial return on our product candidates.

No uniform policy for coverage and reimbursement for products exists among third-party payors in the United States. Therefore, coverage and reimbursement for products can differ significantly from payor to payor. As a result, the coverage determination process is often a time-consuming and costly process that will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our product candidates to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be applied consistently or obtained in the first instance. Furthermore, rules and regulations regarding reimbursement change frequently, in some cases on short notice, and we believe that changes in these rules and regulations are likely.

Outside the United States, international operations are generally subject to extensive governmental price controls and other market regulations, and we believe the increasing emphasis on cost-containment initiatives in Europe and other countries have and will continue to put pressure on the pricing and usage of our product candidates. In many countries, the prices of medical products are subject to varying price control mechanisms as part of national health systems. Other countries allow companies to fix their own prices for medical products, but monitor and control company profits. Additional foreign price controls or other changes in pricing regulation could restrict the amount that we are able to charge for our product candidates. Accordingly, in markets outside the United States, the reimbursement for our product candidates may be reduced compared with the United States and may be insufficient to generate commercially-reasonable revenue and profits.

Moreover, increasing efforts by governmental and third-party payors in the United States and abroad to cap or reduce healthcare costs may cause such organizations to limit both coverage and the level of reimbursement for newly approved products and, as a result, they may not cover or provide adequate payment for our product candidates. We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of our product candidates due to the trend toward managed health care, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations and additional legislative changes. The downward pressure on healthcare costs in general, particularly prescription drugs and biologics and surgical procedures and other treatments, has become intense. As a result, increasingly high barriers are being erected to the entry of new products.

Recently enacted legislation, future legislation and healthcare reform measures may increase the difficulty and cost for our partners to obtain marketing approval for and commercialize product candidates developed by us.

In the United States and some foreign jurisdictions, there have been, and we expect there will continue to be, a number of legislative and regulatory changes to the healthcare system, including cost-containment measures that may reduce or limit coverage and reimbursement for newly approved drugs and affect our ability to profitably sell any product candidates for which we develop and our partners obtain marketing approval. In particular, there have been and continue to be a number of initiatives at the U.S. federal and state levels that seek to reduce healthcare costs and improve the quality of healthcare.

For example, in March 2010, the Affordable Care Act (the “ACA”) was enacted in the United States. The ACA established an annual, nondeductible fee on any entity that manufactures or imports specified branded prescription drugs and biologic agents; extended manufacturers’ Medicaid rebate liability to covered drugs dispensed to individuals who are enrolled in Medicaid managed care organizations; expanded eligibility criteria for Medicaid programs; expanded the entities eligible for discounts under the 340B drug pricing program; increased the statutory minimum rebates a manufacturer must pay under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program; established a new Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute to oversee, identify priorities in and conduct comparative clinical effectiveness research, along with funding for such research; and establishes a Center for Medicare & Medicaid Innovation at the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services to test innovative payment and service delivery models to lower Medicare and Medicaid spending.

Since its enactment, there have been executive, judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the ACA, and on June 17, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the most recent judicial challenge to the ACA brought by several states without specifically ruling on the constitutionality of the ACA. Prior to the Supreme Court’s decision, President Biden had issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period from February 15, 2021 through August 15, 2021 for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the ACA marketplace. The executive order also instructed certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the ACA. It is unclear how the healthcare reform measures will impact our business.

In addition, other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the ACA was enacted. In March 2021, the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 was signed into law, which eliminates the statutory cap on the Medicaid drug rebate, currently set at 100% of a drug’s average manufacturer price, beginning January 1, 2024. Further, there has been heightened governmental scrutiny in the United States of pharmaceutical pricing practices in light of the rising cost of prescription drugs. Such scrutiny has resulted in several recent congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to product pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient assistance programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for products. Most recently, the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (the “IRA”), included a number of significant drug pricing reforms, which include the establishment of a drug price negotiation program within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (“HHS”) (beginning in 2026) that requires manufacturers to charge a negotiated “maximum fair price” for certain selected drugs or pay an excise tax for noncompliance, the establishment of rebate payment requirements on manufacturers under Medicare Parts B and D to penalize price increases that outpace inflation (first due in 2023), and a redesign of the Part D benefit, as part of which manufacturers are required to provide discounts on Part D drugs (beginning in 2025). The IRA permits the HHS Secretary to implement many of these provisions through guidance, as opposed to regulation, for the initial years. Additional drug pricing proposals could appear in future legislation. Further, it is possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Legally mandated price controls on payment amounts by third-party payors or other restrictions could harm our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. In addition, regional healthcare authorities and individual hospitals are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription drug and other healthcare programs. This could reduce the ultimate demand for any product candidate we develop, if approved, or put pressure on our product pricing, which could negatively affect our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

We expect that these new laws and other healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, more rigorous coverage criteria, new payment methodologies and additional downward pressure on the price that we receive for any approved product. Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payors. The implementation of cost containment measures or other healthcare reforms may prevent us from being able to generate revenue, attain profitability or commercialize any product candidates we develop, if approved.

Compliance with European Union chemical regulations could be costly and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Some of our products are subject to the EU regulatory regime known as The Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (“REACH”). REACH mandates that certain chemicals manufactured in, or imported into, the EU be registered and evaluated for their potential effects on human health and the environment. Under REACH, we and our contract manufacturers located in the EU are required to register certain of our products based on the quantity of such product imported into or manufactured in the EU and on the product’s intended end-use. The registration, evaluation and authorization process under REACH can be costly and time consuming. Problems or delays in the registration, evaluation or authorization process under REACH could delay or prevent the manufacture of some of our products in, or the importation of some of our products into, the EU, which could adversely affect our business and results of operations. In addition, if we or our contract manufacturers fail to comply with REACH, we may be subject to penalties or other enforcement actions, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

Risks Related to our Dependence on Third Parties

We rely on third parties to conduct our clinical trials and perform some of our research and preclinical studies. If these third parties do not satisfactorily carry out their contractual duties or fail to meet expected deadlines, our development programs may be delayed or subject to increased costs, each of which may have an adverse effect on our business and prospects.

We do not have the ability to conduct all aspects of our preclinical testing or clinical trials ourselves. As a result, we are and expect to remain dependent on third parties to conduct clinical trials of our product candidates. Specifically, we expect CROs, clinical investigators, and consultants to play a significant role in the conduct of these trials and the subsequent collection and analysis of data. However, we will not be able to control all aspects of their activities. Nevertheless, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol and legal, regulatory and scientific standards, and our reliance on the CROs and other third parties does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities. We and our CROs are required to comply with GCP requirements, which are regulations and guidelines enforced by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities for all of our product candidates in clinical development. Regulatory authorities enforce these GCP requirements through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, clinical trial investigators and clinical trial sites. If we or any of our CROs or clinical trial sites fail to comply with applicable GCP requirements, the data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable, and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with product produced under cGMP regulations. Our failure to comply with these regulations may require us to stop and/or repeat clinical trials, which would delay the marketing approval process.

There is no guarantee that any such CROs, clinical trial investigators or other third parties on which we rely will devote adequate time and resources to our development activities or perform as contractually required. If any of these third parties fail to meet expected deadlines, adhere to our clinical protocols or meet regulatory requirements, otherwise performs in a substandard manner, or terminates its engagement with us, the timelines for our development programs may be extended or delayed or our development activities may be suspended or terminated. If any of our clinical trial sites terminates for any reason, we may experience the loss of follow-up information on subjects enrolled in such clinical trials unless we are able to transfer those subjects to another qualified clinical trial site, which may be difficult or impossible. In addition, clinical trial investigators for our clinical trials may serve as scientific advisors or consultants to us from time to time and may receive cash or equity compensation in connection with such services. If these relationships and any related compensation result in perceived or actual conflicts of interest, or the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities concludes that the financial relationship may have affected the interpretation of the trial, the integrity of the data generated at the applicable clinical trial site may be questioned and the utility of the clinical trial itself may be jeopardized, which could result in the delay or rejection of any marketing application we submit by the FDA or any comparable foreign regulatory authority. Any such delay or rejection could prevent us from commercializing our product candidates.

We contract with third parties for the manufacturing and supply of product candidates for use in preclinical testing and clinical trials and related services, which supply may become limited or interrupted or may not be of satisfactory quality and quantity.

We do not have any manufacturing facilities. We produce in our laboratory relatively small quantities of products for evaluation in our research programs. We rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates for preclinical and clinical testing, as well as for commercial manufacture if any of our product candidates are approved. We currently have limited manufacturing arrangements and expect that each of our product candidates will only be covered by single source suppliers for the foreseeable future. This reliance increases the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of our product candidates or products, if approved, or such quantities at an acceptable cost or quality, which could delay, prevent or impair our development or commercialization efforts.

Furthermore, all entities involved in the preparation of therapeutics for clinical trials or commercial sale, including our existing contract manufacturers for our product candidates, are subject to extensive regulation. Components of a finished therapeutic product approved for commercial sale or used in clinical trials must be manufactured in accordance with cGMP requirements. These regulations govern manufacturing processes and procedures, including record keeping, and the implementation and operation of quality systems to control and assure the quality of investigational products and products approved for sale. Poor control of production processes can lead to the introduction of contaminants, or to inadvertent changes in the properties or stability of our product candidates that may not be detectable in final product testing. We or our contract manufacturers must supply all necessary documentation in support of a BLA on a timely basis and must adhere to the FDA’s cGMP regulations enforced by the FDA through its facilities inspection program. Comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require compliance with similar requirements. The facilities and quality systems of our third-party contractor manufacturers must pass a pre-approval inspection for compliance with the applicable regulations as a condition of marketing approval of our product candidates. We do not control the manufacturing activities of, and are completely dependent on, our contract manufacturers for compliance with cGMP regulations.

In the event that any of our manufacturers fails to comply with such requirements or to perform its obligations to us in relation to quality, timing or otherwise, or if our supply of components or other materials becomes limited or interrupted for other reasons, we may be forced to manufacture the materials ourselves, for which we currently do not have the capabilities or resources, or enter into an agreement with another third party, which we may not be able to do on commercially reasonable terms, if at all. In particular, any replacement of our manufacturers could require significant effort and expertise because there may be a limited number of qualified replacements. In some cases, the technical skills or technology required to manufacture our product candidates may be unique or proprietary to the original manufacturer and we may have difficulty transferring such skills or technology to another third party and a feasible alternative may not exist. In addition, certain of our product candidates and our own proprietary methods have never been produced or implemented outside of our company, and we may therefore experience delays to our development programs if and when we attempt to establish new third party manufacturing arrangements for these product candidates or methods. These factors would increase our reliance on such manufacturer or require us to obtain a license from such manufacturer in order to have another third party manufacture our product candidates. If we are required to change manufacturers for any reason, we will be required to verify that the new manufacturer maintains facilities and procedures that comply with quality standards and with all applicable regulations and guidelines. The delays associated with the verification of a new manufacturer could negatively affect our ability to develop product candidates in a timely manner or within budget.

Our or a third party’s failure to execute on our manufacturing requirements, do so on commercially reasonable terms and comply with cGMP could adversely affect our business in a number of ways, including:

•an inability to initiate or continue clinical trials of our product candidates under development;

•delay in submitting regulatory applications, or receiving marketing approvals, for our product candidates;

•loss of the cooperation of future collaborators;

•subjecting third-party manufacturing facilities or our manufacturing facilities to additional inspections by regulatory authorities;

•requirements to cease development or to recall batches of our product candidates; and

•in the event of approval to market and commercialize our product candidates, an inability to meet commercial demands for our product or any other future product candidates.

Risks Related to Intellectual Property and Information Technology

Our efforts to prosecute, maintain, protect and/or defend our intellectual property rights may not be successful.

We will continue to file and prosecute patent applications and maintain trade secrets in an ongoing effort to protect our intellectual property rights. It is possible that our current patents, or patents which we may later acquire, may be successfully challenged or invalidated, in whole or in part. It is also possible that we may not obtain issued patents from our pending patent applications. We sometimes permit certain patents or patent applications to lapse or go abandoned under appropriate circumstances. Due to uncertainties inherent in prosecuting patent applications, sometimes patent applications are rejected, and we subsequently abandon them. It is also possible that we may develop proprietary technology, products or services in the future that are not patentable or that the patents of others will limit or altogether preclude our ability to conduct business. In addition, any patent issued to us or to our licensor may provide us with little or no competitive advantage, in which case we may abandon such patent or license it to another entity, or terminate the license agreement.

Our means of protecting our proprietary rights may not be adequate and our competitors may independently develop technologies, products or services that are identical or similar to ours or that compete with ours. Patent, trademark, copyright and trade secret laws afford only limited protection for our technology, products and services . The laws of many countries do not protect our proprietary rights to as great an extent as do the laws of the United States. Despite our efforts to protect our proprietary rights, unauthorized parties have in the past attempted, and may in the future attempt, to operate under the aspects of our intellectual property rights, or proprietary technology, products or services or products, or to obtain and use information that we regard as proprietary. Third parties may also design around our proprietary rights, which may render our protected technology, services and products less valuable, if the design around is favorably received in the marketplace. In addition, if any of our technology, products and services is covered by third-party patents or other intellectual property rights, we could be subject to various legal actions. We cannot assure that our technology products and/or services do not infringe, violate or misappropriate any patents or other intellectual property rights owned or controlled by others or that they will not in the future.

Litigation may be necessary to enforce our intellectual property rights, to protect our trade secrets, to determine the validity and scope of the proprietary rights of others, or to defend against claims of infringement, invalidity, misappropriation, or other claims.

Any such litigation could result in substantial costs and diversion of our resources. Moreover, any settlement of or adverse judgment resulting from litigation relating to intellectual property rights could require us to obtain a license to continue to make, use, import, sell or offer for sale the technology, products or services that is the subject of the claim, or otherwise restrict or prohibit our use of the technology, products or services.

Our ability to compete may decline if we do not adequately prosecute, maintain, protect and/or defend our proprietary technology, products or services or our intellectual property rights.

Our success depends in part on our ability to obtain patents and maintain adequate protection of our intellectual property rights directed to our technology, products and services in the United States and other countries. We have adopted a strategy of seeking patent protection in the United States and in foreign countries with respect to certain of the technology used in or relating to our products, services, and processes. As such, as of December 31, 2022, we owned or controlled approximately 2,090 issued patents and pending patent applications in the United States and in various foreign jurisdictions. Our patents and patent applications, if issued, as of December 31, 2022, have terms that expire between 2023 and approximately 2043. We also have license rights to a number of issued patents and pending patent applications in the United States and in various foreign jurisdictions. Our owned and licensed patents and patent applications include those directed to our enabling technology and to the methods and products that support our business in the biotherapeutics, pharma manufacturing, life sciences, food and other markets. We intend to continue to apply for patents relating to our technology, methods, services and products as we deem appropriate.

Issuance of claims in patent applications and enforceability of such claims once issued involve complex legal and factual questions and, therefore, we cannot predict with any certainty whether any of our issued patents will survive invalidity claims asserted by third parties. Issued patents and patents issuing from pending applications may be challenged, invalidated, circumvented, rendered unenforceable or substantially narrowed in scope. In addition, the inventorship and ownership of the patents and patent applications may be challenged by others. Moreover, the United States Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (“AIA”), enacted in September 2011, brought significant changes to the United States patent system, which include a change to a “first to file” system from a “first to invent” system and changes to the procedures for challenging issued patents and disputing patent applications during the examination process, among other things. While interference proceedings are possible for patent claims filed prior to March 16, 2013, many of our filings will be subject to the post- and pre-grant proceedings set forth in the AIA, including citation of prior art and written statements by third parties, third party pre-issuance submissions, ex parte reexamination, inter partes review, post-grant review, and derivation proceedings. We may need to utilize the processes provided by the AIA for supplemental examination or patent reissuance. These proceedings could result in substantial cost to us even if the outcome is favorable. Even if successful, any proceeding may result in loss of certain claims. Any litigation or proceedings could divert our management's time and efforts. Even unsuccessful claims brought by third parties could result in significant legal fees and other expenses, diversion of management time, and disruption in our business. Uncertainties resulting from initiation and continuation of any patent or related litigation could harm our ability to compete.

Additional uncertainty may result from legal precedent handed down by the United States Federal Circuit Court and Supreme Court as they determine legal issues concerning the scope and construction of patent claims and inconsistent interpretation of patent laws by the lower courts. Accordingly, we cannot ensure that any of our pending patent applications will result in issued patents, or even if issued, predict the breadth of the claims upheld in our and other companies' patents. Given that the degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain, we cannot ensure that: (i) we were the first to invent the inventions covered by each of our pending applications, (ii) we were the first to file patent applications for these inventions, or (iii) the proprietary technology, products or services we develop will be patentable. In addition, unauthorized parties may attempt to copy or otherwise obtain and use our technology, products and services. Monitoring unauthorized use of our intellectual property rights is difficult, and we cannot be certain that the steps we have taken will prevent unauthorized use of our technology, products or services, particularly in certain foreign countries where the local laws may not protect our proprietary rights as fully as in the United States. Moreover, third parties could practice our inventions in territories where we do not have patent protection. Such third parties may then try to import products made using our inventions into the United States or other countries. If competitors are able to use our proprietary technology, products or services, our ability to compete effectively could be harmed. In addition, others may independently develop and obtain patents for technologies, products or services that are similar to or superior to our technologies, products or services. If that happens, we may need to license these technologies, products or services, and we may not be able to obtain licenses on reasonable terms, if at all, which could cause harm to our business.

Similarly, foreign courts have made, and will likely continue to make, changes in how the patent laws in their respective jurisdictions are interpreted. Changes in patent laws and regulations in other countries or jurisdictions, changes in the governmental bodies that enforce them, or changes in how the relevant governmental authority enforces patent laws or regulations may weaken our ability to obtain new patents or to enforce patents that we own or may obtain in the future. Further, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect proprietary rights to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws of the United States. For example, in some foreign jurisdictions, governments have the right to compel patent owners to grant others licenses to their intellectual property under certain circumstances. In addition, any protection afforded by foreign patents may be more limited than that provided under U.S. patent and intellectual property laws. We may encounter significant problems in enforcing and defending our intellectual property both in the United States and abroad. For example, if the issuance in a given country of a patent covering an invention is not followed by the issuance in other countries of patents covering the same invention, or if any judicial interpretation of the validity, enforceability or scope of the claims or the written description or enablement in a patent issued in one country is not similar to the interpretation given to the corresponding patent issued in other countries, our ability to protect our intellectual property rights in those countries may be limited. Changes in either patent laws or in interpretations of patent laws in the United States and other countries may materially diminish the value of our intellectual property rights or narrow the scope of our patent protection. We cannot predict future changes in the interpretation of patent laws or changes to patent laws that might be enacted into law by U.S. and foreign legislative bodies. Those changes may materially affect our patents or patent applications and our ability to obtain additional patent protection in the future. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our competitive position, business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Third parties may claim that we are infringing, violating or misappropriating their intellectual property rights, which may subject us to costly and time consuming litigation and prevent us from developing or commercializing our technology, products or services.

Our commercial success also depends in part on our ability to operate without infringing, violating or misappropriating patents and other intellectual property rights of third parties, and without breaching any licenses or other agreements that we have entered into with regard to our technologies, products or services. We cannot ensure that patents have not been issued, or will not be issued, to third parties that could block our ability to obtain patents or to operate as we would like. There may be patents in some countries that, if valid, may block our ability to make, use, sell, or offer for sale our technology, products or services in those countries, or import our products into those countries, if we are unsuccessful in circumventing or acquiring rights to these patents. There also may be claims in patent applications filed in some countries that, if granted and valid, may also block our ability to commercialize technology, products, services or processes in these countries if we are unable to circumvent or obtain rights to them.

The industries in which we operate and the biotechnology industry, in particular, are characterized by frequent and extensive litigation regarding patents and other intellectual property rights. Many biotechnology companies have employed intellectual property litigation as a way to gain a competitive advantage. Any involvement in litigation or other intellectual property proceedings inside and outside of the United States to defend against claims that we infringe, misappropriate or violate the intellectual property of the rights of others may divert our management’s time from focusing on business operations and could cause us to spend significant amounts of money. Any potential intellectual property litigation also could force us to do one or more of the following:

•stop making, using, selling or importing our technologies, products and services that use the subject intellectual property;

•pay monetary damages to the third party asserting claims against us;

•grant or transfer rights to third parties relating to our patents or other intellectual property rights;

•obtain from the third party asserting its intellectual property rights a license to make, sell, offer for sale, import or use the relevant technology, product or service, which license may not be available on reasonable terms, or at all; or

•redesign those technologies, products, services or processes that use any allegedly infringing, misappropriating or violating intellectual property rights, or relocate the operations relating to the allegedly infringing misappropriating or violating intellectual property rights to another jurisdiction, which may result in significant cost or delay to us, could be technically infeasible or could prevent us from making, selling, offering for sale, using or importing some of our technologies, products or services in the United States or other jurisdictions.

We are aware of some patents and patent applications relating to aspects of our technologies, products or services filed by, and issued to, third parties. We cannot assure that if such third party patents rights are asserted against us that we would ultimately prevail.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our intellectual property rights, which could be expensive, time-consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe, violate or misappropriate our intellectual property rights or those of our licensors. To prevent infringement, violation, misappropriation or other unauthorized use, we have in the past filed, and may in the future be required to file, enforcement claims, which can be expensive and time-consuming. In addition, in an enforcement proceeding, a court may decide that the intellectual property right that we own or control is not valid, is unenforceable and/or is not infringed, violated or misappropriated. In addition, in legal proceedings against a third party to enforce a patent directed at one of our technologies, products or services, the defendant could counterclaim that our patent is invalid and/or unenforceable in whole or in part. In patent enforcement litigation in the United States, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity and/or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a patent validity challenge include an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, including lack of novelty, obviousness or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could include an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the United States Patent and Trademark Office (“USPTO”) or made a misleading statement during prosecution. Third parties may also raise similar claims before the USPTO, even outside the context of enforcement litigation. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability is unpredictable, and prior art could render our patents or those of our licensors invalid. If a defendant were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity and/or unenforceability, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection on the respective technology, products or services. Such a loss of patent protection could have a material adverse impact on our business.

Even if resolved in our favor, litigation or other legal proceedings relating to our intellectual property rights may cause us to incur significant expenses, and could distract our technical and management personnel from their normal responsibilities. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments and if securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a substantial adverse effect on the price of our common stock. Such litigation or proceedings could substantially increase our expenses and reduce the resources available for operations and research and development activities. We may not have sufficient financial or other resources to conduct such litigation or proceedings adequately. Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of such litigation or proceedings more effectively than we can because of their greater financial resources. Uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of patent litigation or other proceedings could compromise our ability to compete in the marketplace. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with U.S. intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation.

We may not be able to enforce our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

The laws of some foreign countries where we do business do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States. Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and enforcing intellectual property rights in certain foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property rights, particularly those relating to biotechnology technologies. Accordingly, our efforts to protect and enforce our intellectual property rights in such countries may be inadequate. This could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement, violation or misappropriation of our patents or other intellectual property rights. Additionally, proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business.

If our biocatalysts, or the genes that code for our biocatalysts, are stolen, misappropriated or reverse engineered, others could use these biocatalysts or genes to produce competing products.

Third parties, including our contract manufacturers, customers and those involved in shipping our biocatalysts, often have custody or control of our biocatalysts. If our biocatalysts, or the genes that code for our biocatalysts, were stolen, misappropriated or reverse engineered, they could be used by other parties who may be able to reproduce these biocatalysts for their own commercial gain. If this were to occur, it may be difficult for us to challenge this type of use, especially in countries with limited intellectual property rights protection or in countries in which we do not have patents covering the misappropriated biocatalysts.

Confidentiality and non-use agreements with employees, consultants, advisors and other third parties may not adequately prevent disclosures and non-use of trade secrets and other proprietary information.

In addition to patent protection, we also rely on other intellectual property rights, including protection of copyright, trade secrets, know-how and/or other proprietary information that is not patentable or that we elect not to patent. However, trade secrets can be difficult to protect, and some courts are less willing or unwilling to protect trade secrets. To maintain the confidentiality of our trade secrets and proprietary information, we rely in part on trade secret law and contractual agreements to protect our confidential and proprietary information and processes. We generally enter into confidentiality and invention assignment agreements with our employees, consultants and third parties working on our behalf upon their commencement of a relationship with us. However, trade secrets and confidential information are difficult to protect and we cannot guarantee that we have entered into such agreements with each party that may have or have had access to our trade secrets or proprietary technology and processes and we may not enter into such agreements with all employees, consultants and third parties who have been involved in the development of our intellectual property rights. Nevertheless, without our permission or awareness, our confidential and proprietary information may be disclosed to third parties, used by the respective individuals for purposes other than for the Company’s business, or obtained through illegal means, such that third parties could reverse engineer our biocatalysts, product candidates, and processes, to attempt to develop the same technology or develop substantially equivalent technology.

Costly and time-consuming litigation could be necessary to enforce and determine the scope of our confidential and proprietary rights, and failure to protect our trade secrets could adversely affect our competitive business position. If any of our trade secrets were lawfully obtained, we may be unable to prevent them, or those to whom they communicate it, from using that technology or information to compete with us or disclosing it publicly. Therefore, these events could have a material adverse effect ob our business, financial condition and results of operations. In particular, a failure to protect our proprietary rights may allow competitors to copy our technology, which could adversely affect our pricing and market share.

In addition to contractual measures, we try to protect the confidential nature of our proprietary information by maintaining physical security of our premises and electronic security of our information technology systems. Such security measures may not, for example, in the case of misappropriation of a trade secret by an employee, consultant or other third party with authorized access or with unauthorized access but an intent to steal, provide adequate protection for our proprietary information. Our security measures may not prevent such employee, consultant or other third party from misappropriating our trade secrets and using them or providing them to a competitor, and recourse we take against such misconduct may not provide an adequate remedy to protect our interests fully. While we use commonly accepted security measures, trade secret violations are often a matter of state law in the United States, and the criteria for protection of trade secrets can vary among different jurisdictions. If the steps we have taken to maintain our trade secrets are deemed inadequate, we may have insufficient recourse against third parties for misappropriating the trade secret.

Risks Related to Owning our Common Stock

We are subject to anti-takeover provisions in our certificate of incorporation and bylaws and under Delaware law that could delay or prevent an acquisition of our company, even if the acquisition would be beneficial to our stockholders.

Provisions in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and our bylaws may delay or prevent an acquisition of us. Among other things, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and bylaws provide for a board of directors which is divided into three classes, with staggered three-year terms and provide that all stockholder action must be effected at a duly called meeting of the stockholders and not by a consent in writing, and further provide that only our board of directors, the chairman of the board of directors, our chief executive officer or president may call a special meeting of the stockholders. In addition, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation allows our board of directors, without further action by our stockholders, to issue up to 5,000,000 shares of preferred stock in one or more series and to fix the rights, preferences, privileges and restrictions thereof. These provisions may also frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors, who are responsible for appointing the members of our management team. Furthermore, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law which prohibits, with some exceptions, stockholders owning in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us. Finally, our charter documents establish advanced notice requirements for nominations for election to our board of directors and for proposing matters that can be acted upon at stockholder meetings. Although we believe these provisions together provide for an opportunity to receive higher bids by requiring potential acquirers to negotiate with our board of directors, they would apply even if an offer to acquire our company may be considered beneficial by some stockholders.

Our quarterly or annual operating results may fluctuate in the future. As a result, we may fail to meet or exceed the expectations of research analysts or investors, which could cause our stock price to decline.

Our financial condition and operating results have varied significantly in the past and may continue to fluctuate from quarter to quarter and year to year in the future due to a variety of factors, many of which are beyond our control. Factors relating to our business that may contribute to these fluctuations include the following factors, as well as other factors described elsewhere in this report:

•our ability to achieve or maintain profitability;

•our relationships with, and dependence on, collaborators in our principal markets;

•our dependence on a limited number of customers,;

•our product supply agreements with customers have finite duration, may not be extended or renewed and generally do not require the customer to purchase any particular quantity or quantities of our products;

•with respect to customers purchasing our products for the manufacture of active pharmaceutical ingredients for which they have exclusivity due to patent protection, the termination or expiration of such patent protection and any resulting generic competition may materially and adversely affect our revenues, financial condition or results of operations;

•our dependence on a limited number of products in our performance enzymes business;

•our reliance on a limited number of contract manufacturers for large scale production of substantially all of our enzyme products;

•our ability to develop and successfully commercialize new products for the markets we serve;

•our ability to obtain additional development partners for our novel biotherapeutic programs;

•potential of Nestlé Health Science or Takeda terminating any development program under their license agreements with us;

•potential of GSK, Merck, Novartis or any other performance enzyme customer terminating their agreements with us;

•the success of our customers’ products in the market and the ability of such customers to obtain regulatory approvals for products and processes;

•our or our customers’ ability to obtain regulatory approval for the sale and manufacturing of food products using our enzymes;

•our ability to deploy our technology platform in life science tools markets;

•our ability to successfully achieve domestic and foreign regulatory approval for product candidates;

•our ability to successfully design and execute clinical testing at a reasonable cost and on an acceptable time-frame;

•our dependence on product candidates which could unexpectedly fail at any stage of preclinical or clinical development;

•our dependence on product candidates which may lack the ability to work as intended or cause undesirable side effects;

•our dependency on third parties to conduct clinical trials, research, and preclinical studies;

•our ability to successfully prosecute and protect our intellectual property;

•our ability to compete if we do not adequately protect our proprietary technologies or if we lose some of our intellectual property rights;

•our ability to avoid infringing the intellectual property rights of third parties;

•our involvement in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or other intellectual property rights;

•our ability to enforce our intellectual property rights throughout the world;

•our dependence on, and the need to attract and retain, key management and other personnel;

•our ability to prevent the theft or misappropriation of our biocatalysts, the genes that code for our biocatalysts, know-how or technologies;

•our ability to protect our trade secrets and other proprietary information from disclosure by employees and others;

•our ability to obtain substantial additional capital that may be necessary to expand our business;

•our ability to comply with the terms of our credit facility;

•our ability to timely pay debt service obligations;

•our customers’ ability to pay amounts owed to us in a timely manner;

•our ability to avoid charges to earnings as a result of any impairment of goodwill, intangible assets or other long-lived assets;

•changes in financial accounting standards or practices may cause adverse, unexpected financial reporting fluctuations and affect our reported results of operations;

•our ability to maintain effective internal control over financial reporting;

•our dependency on information technology systems, infrastructure and data;

•our ability to control and to improve product gross margins;

•our ability to protect against risks associated with the international aspects of our business;

•the cost of compliance with EU chemical regulations;

•potential advantages that our competitors and potential competitors may have in securing funding or developing products;

•our ability to accurately report our financial results in a timely manner;

•results of regulatory tax examinations;

•market and economic conditions may negatively impact our business, financial condition, and share price;

•business interruptions due to natural disasters, disease outbreaks or other events beyond our control;

•public concerns about the ethical, legal and social ramifications of genetically engineered products and processes;

•our ability to integrate our current business with any businesses that we may acquire in the future;

•our ability to properly handle and dispose of hazardous materials in our business;

•potential product liability claims;

•changes to tax law and related regulations could materially affect our tax obligations and effective tax rate; and

•our ability to use our NOLs to offset future taxable income.

Due to the various factors mentioned above, and others, the results of any prior quarterly or annual periods should not be relied upon as indications of our future operating performance.

We do not intend to pay cash dividends for the foreseeable future.

We currently intend to retain our future earnings, if any, to finance the further development and expansion of our business and do not intend to pay cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any future determination to pay dividends will be at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on our financial condition, results of operations, capital requirements, restrictions contained in future agreements and financing instruments, business prospects and such other factors as our board of directors deems relevant.

General Risk Factors

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or publish negative reports about our business, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock will be influenced by the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. We do not have any control over these analysts. If one or more of the analysts who cover us downgrade our stock or change their opinion of our stock in a negative manner, our stock price would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which could cause our stock price or trading volume to decline.

We face risks associated with our international business.

While we have a limited number of employees located outside of the United States, we are and will continue to be dependent upon contract manufacturers located outside of the United States. In addition, we have customers and partners located outside of the United States. Conducting business internationally exposes us to a variety of risks, including:

•changes in or interpretations of foreign regulations that may adversely affect our ability to sell our products, repatriate profits to the United States or operate our foreign-located facilities;

•the imposition of tariffs;

•the imposition of limitations on, or increase of, withholding and other taxes on remittances and other payments by foreign subsidiaries or joint ventures;

•the imposition of limitations on genetically-engineered products or processes and the production or sale of those products or processes in foreign countries;

•currency exchange rate fluctuations;

•uncertainties relating to foreign laws, regulations and legal proceedings including tax, import/export, anti-corruption and exchange control laws;

•the availability of government subsidies or other incentives that benefit competitors in their local markets that are not available to us;

•increased demands on our limited resources created by our operations may constrain the capabilities of our administrative and operational resources and restrict our ability to attract, train, manage and retain qualified management, technicians, scientists and other personnel;

•economic or political instability in foreign countries;

•difficulties associated with staffing and managing foreign operations; and

•the need to comply with a variety of United States and foreign laws applicable to the conduct of international business, including import and export control laws and anti-corruption laws.

Market and economic conditions may negatively impact our business, financial condition, and share price.

Concerns about inflation, energy costs, geopolitical issues, the United States mortgage market and a declining real estate market, unstable global credit markets and financial conditions, and volatile oil prices have led to periods of significant economic instability, diminished liquidity and credit availability, declines in consumer confidence and discretionary spending, diminished expectations for the global economy and expectations of slower global economic growth going forward, increased unemployment rates, and increased credit defaults in recent years. Our general business strategy may be adversely affected by any such economic downturns, volatile business environments and continued unstable or unpredictable economic and market conditions. In addition, if the market and economic conditions described above continue to deteriorate or do not improve, it may make any necessary debt or equity financing more difficult to complete, more costly, and more dilutive. Failure to secure any necessary financing in a timely manner and on favorable terms could have a material adverse effect on our growth strategy, financial performance, and stock price. Additionally, rising rates of inflation have increased the costs associated with conducting our business, including by causing substantial increases in the costs of materials, including raw materials and consumables, equipment, services, and labor. Moreover, given the unpredictable nature of the current economic climate, including future changes in rates of inflation, it may be increasingly difficult for us to predict and control our future expenses, which may harm our ability to conduct our business.

Business interruptions resulting from disasters or other disturbances could delay us in the process of developing our products and could disrupt our sales. Our business continuity and disaster recovery plans may not adequately protect us from a serious disaster or other disturbance.

Our headquarters and other facilities are located in the San Francisco Bay Area, which in the past has experienced both severe earthquakes and wildfires. Earthquakes, wildfires or other natural disasters could severely disrupt our operations, and have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. We are also vulnerable to other types of disasters and other events that could disrupt our operations, such as riot, civil disturbances, war, terrorist acts, infections in our laboratory or production facilities or those of our customers or contract manufacturers and other events beyond our control. If a natural disaster or other event occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our headquarters, that damaged critical infrastructure, such as our enterprise financial systems or manufacturing resource planning and enterprise quality systems, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible, for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. The disaster recovery and business continuity plans we have in place currently are limited and are unlikely to prove adequate in the event of a serious disaster or similar event. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of the limited nature of our disaster recovery and business continuity plans. We do not carry insurance for earthquakes and we may not carry sufficient business interruption insurance to compensate us for losses that may occur. Any losses or damages we incur could have a material adverse effect on our cash flows and success as an overall business.

We are dependent on information technology systems, infrastructure and data, and any failure of these systems could harm our business. Security breaches, loss of data and other disruptions could compromise sensitive information related to our business or prevent us from accessing critical information and expose us to liability, which could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Information technology helps us operate efficiently, interface with customers, maintain financial accuracy and efficiency and accurately produce our financial statements. If we do not allocate and effectively manage the resources necessary to build and sustain the proper technology infrastructure, we could be subject to transaction errors, processing inefficiencies, the loss of customers, business disruptions or the loss of or damage to intellectual property through security breach. If our information technology systems do not effectively collect, store, process and report relevant data for the operation of our business, whether due to equipment malfunction or constraints, software deficiencies, or human error, our ability to effectively plan, forecast and execute our business plan and comply with applicable laws and regulations will be impaired, perhaps materially. Our information technology systems and those of our external vendors, strategic partners and other contractors or consultants are vulnerable to attack and damage or interruption from computer viruses and malware (e.g. ransomware), malicious code, natural disasters, terrorism, war, telecommunication and electrical failures, hacking, cyberattacks, phishing attacks and other social engineering schemes, employee theft or misuse, human error, fraud, denial or degradation of service attacks, sophisticated nation-state and nation-state-supported actors or unauthorized access or use by persons inside our organization, or persons with access to systems inside our organization. Any such impairment could materially and adversely affect our financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and the timeliness with which we report our internal and external operating results.

Our business may require us to use and store personal information of our customers, employees, and business partners. This may include names, addresses, phone numbers, email addresses, contact preferences, tax identification numbers and payment account information. We require usernames and passwords in order to access our information technology systems. We also use encryption and authentication technologies to secure the transmission and storage of data. However, these security measures may be compromised as a result of security breaches by unauthorized persons, employee error, malfeasance, faulty password management or other irregularity, and result in persons obtaining unauthorized access to our data or accounts. Third parties may attempt to fraudulently induce employees or customers into disclosing usernames, passwords or other sensitive information, which may in turn be used to access our information technology systems. For example, our employees have received “phishing” emails and phone calls attempting to induce them to divulge passwords and other sensitive information.

In addition, unauthorized persons may attempt to hack into our products or systems to obtain personal data relating to employees and other individuals, our confidential or proprietary information or confidential information we hold on behalf of third parties. We also rely on external vendors to supply and/or support certain aspects of our information technology systems. The systems of these external vendors may contain defects in design or manufacture or other problems that could unexpectedly compromise information security of our own systems, and we are dependent on these third parties to deploy appropriate security programs to protect their systems. If we or our third-party vendors were to experience a significant cybersecurity breach of our or their information systems or data, the costs associated with the investigation, remediation and potential notification of the breach to counter-parties and data subjects could be material. Our remediation efforts may not be successful. Further, if such an event were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations, it could result in a material disruption of our development programs and our business operations, whether due to a loss, corruption or unauthorized disclosure of our trade secrets, personal information or other proprietary or sensitive information or other similar disruptions. Attacks upon information technology systems are also increasing in their frequency, levels of persistence, sophistication and intensity, and are being conducted by sophisticated and organized groups and individuals with a wide range of motives and expertise. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, we may also face increased cybersecurity risks due to our reliance on internet technology and the number of our employees who are working remotely, which may create additional opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities. We have programs in place to detect, contain and respond to data security incidents, and we make ongoing improvements to our information-sharing products in order to minimize vulnerabilities, in accordance with industry and regulatory standards. However, because the techniques used to obtain unauthorized access to or sabotage systems change frequently and may be difficult to detect, we may not be able to anticipate and prevent these intrusions or mitigate them when and if they occur. Even if identified, we may be unable to adequately investigate or remediate incidents or breaches due to attackers increasingly using tools and techniques that are designed to circumvent controls, to avoid detection and to remove or obfuscate forensic evidence.

We and certain of our external vendors are from time to time subject to cyberattacks and security incidents. While we do not believe that we have experienced any significant system failure, accident, or security breach to date, if such an event were to occur, it could result in the unauthorized access to or unauthorized use, disclosure, release or other processing of personal information, it may be necessary to notify individuals, governmental authorities, supervisory bodies, the media and other parties pursuant to privacy and security laws. Any security compromise affecting us, our service providers, vendors, strategic partners, other contractors, consultants or our industry, whether real or perceived, could harm our reputation, erode confidence in the effectiveness of our security measures and lead to regulatory scrutiny. To the extent that any disruption or security breach were to result in a loss of, or damage to, our data or systems, or inappropriate disclosure of confidential or proprietary or personal information, we could incur liability, including litigation exposure, penalties and fines, we could become the subject of regulatory action or investigation, our competitive position could be harmed and the further development of our products could be delayed. If such an event were to occur and cause interruptions in our operations, it could result in a material disruption of our business. Furthermore, federal, state and international laws and regulations can expose us to enforcement actions and investigations by regulatory authorities, and potentially result in regulatory penalties, fines and significant legal liability, if our information technology security efforts fail. We may also be exposed to a risk of loss or litigation and potential liability, which could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Actual or perceived failures to comply with applicable data protection, privacy and security laws, regulations, standards and other requirements could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

The global data protection landscape is rapidly evolving, and we are or may become subject to state, federal and foreign laws, regulations, decisions and directives governing the privacy, security, collection, storage, transmission, use, processing, retention and disclosure of personal information. Any failure or perceived failure by us to comply with applicable laws or regulations, our internal policies and procedures or our contracts governing our processing of personal information could result in negative publicity, government investigations and enforcement actions, claims by third parties and damage to our reputation, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our operations, financial performance and business.

In the United States, HIPAA imposes, among other things, certain standards relating to the privacy, security, transmission and breach reporting of individually identifiable health information. Certain states have also adopted comparable privacy and security laws and regulations, which govern the privacy, processing and protection of health-related and other personal information. Such laws and regulations will be subject to interpretation by various courts and other governmental authorities, thus creating potentially complex compliance issues for us and our future customers and strategic partners. For example, the California Consumer Privacy Act (“CCPA”) went into effect on January 1, 2020 , and introduces new compliance burdens on organizations doing business in California that collect personal information about California residents. It creates individual privacy rights for California consumers and increases the privacy and security obligations of entities handling certain personal information. The CCPA also provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for data breaches that is expected to increase data breach litigation. Further, the California Consumer Privacy Act (“CCPA”) recently passed in California. The CPRA will impose additional data protection obligations on covered businesses, including additional consumer rights processes, limitations on data uses, new audit requirements for higher risk data and opt outs for certain uses of sensitive data. It will also create a new California data protection agency authorized to issue substantive regulations and could result in increased privacy and information security enforcement. The majority of the provisions went into effect on January 1, 2023, and additional compliance investment and potential business process changes may be required. Similar laws have passed in Virginia, Colorado, Connecticut and Utah and have been proposed in other states and at the federal level, reflecting a trend toward more stringent privacy legislation in the United States. These developments increase our compliance burden and our risk, including risks of regulatory fines, litigation and associated reputational harm. Any liability from failure to comply with the requirements of these laws could adversely affect our financial condition.

Furthermore, the Federal Trade Commission (“FTC”) and many state Attorneys General continue to enforce federal and state consumer protection laws against companies for online collection, use, dissemination and security practices that appear to be unfair or deceptive. For example, according to the FTC, failing to take appropriate steps to keep consumers’ personal information secure can constitute unfair acts or practices in or affecting commerce in violation of Section 5(a) of the Federal Trade Commission Act. The FTC expects a company’s data security measures to be reasonable and appropriate in light of the sensitivity and volume of consumer information it holds, the size and complexity of its business, and the cost of available tools to improve security and reduce vulnerabilities.

In Europe, the General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPR”) went into effect in May 2018 and imposes strict requirements for processing the personal data of individuals within the European Economic Area (“EEA”). The GDPR imposes stringent requirements for controllers and processors of personal data and increases our obligations, for example, by imposing higher standards when obtaining consent from individuals to process their personal data, requiring more robust disclosures to individuals, strengthening individual data rights, shortening timelines for data breach notifications, limiting retention periods and secondary use of information, increasing requirements pertaining to health data as well as pseudonymized (i.e., key-coded) data and imposing additional obligations when we contract with third-party processors in connection with the processing of personal data. The GDPR provides that EEA member states may make their own additional laws and regulations limiting the processing of genetic, biometric or health data, which could limit our ability to use and share personal data or could cause our costs to increase and harm our business and financial condition. Failure to comply with the requirements of the GDPR can result in fines of up to the greater of €20 million and 4% of the total worldwide annual turnover of the preceding financial year and other administrative penalties. If we are required to comply with the new data protection rules imposed by GDPR, such compliance may be onerous and adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations. Among other requirements, the GDPR regulates transfers of personal data subject to the GDPR to third countries that have not been found to provide adequate protection to such personal data, including the United States, and the efficacy and longevity of current transfer mechanisms between the EU and the United States remains uncertain. For example, in July 2020, the Court of Justice of the EU (“CJEU”) limited how organizations could lawfully transfer personal data from the EU/EEA to the United States by invalidating the Privacy Shield for purposes of international transfers and imposing further restrictions on the use of standard contractual clauses (“SCCs”). In March 2022, the United States and EU announced a new regulatory regime intended to replace the invalidated regulations; however, this new EU-US Data Privacy Framework has not been implemented beyond an executive order signed by President Biden on October 7, 2022 on Enhancing Safeguards for United States Signals Intelligence Activities. The European Commission issued revised SCCs on June 4, 2021 to account for the decision of the CJEU and recommendations made by the European Data Protection Board. The revised SCCs must be used for relevant new data transfers from September 27, 2021; existing standard contractual clauses arrangements must be migrated to the revised clauses by December 27, 2022. The new SCCs apply only to the transfer of personal data outside of the EEA and not the United Kingdom; the United Kingdom’s Information Commissioner’s Office launched a public consultation on its draft revised data transfers mechanisms in August 2021. There is some uncertainty around whether the revised clauses can be used for all types of data transfers, particularly whether they can be relied on for data transfers to non-EEA entities subject to the GDPR. As supervisory authorities issue further guidance on personal data export mechanisms, including circumstances where the SCCs cannot be used, and/or start taking enforcement action, we could suffer additional costs, complaints and/or regulatory investigations or fines, and/or if we are otherwise unable to transfer personal data between and among countries and regions in which we operate, it could affect the manner in which we provide our services, the geographical location or segregation of our relevant systems and operations, and could adversely affect our financial results.

Further, from January 1, 2021, companies have had to comply with the GDPR and also the United Kingdom GDPR (“UK GDPR”), which, together with the amended UK Data Protection Act 2018, retains the GDPR in UK national law. The UK GDPR mirrors the fines under the GDPR, i.e., fines up to the greater of €20 million (or up to £17.5 million for UK) or 4% of global turnover. The relationship between the United Kingdom and the EU in relation to certain aspects of data protection law remains unclear, and it is unclear how United Kingdom data protection laws and regulations will develop in the medium to longer term. The European Commission has adopted an adequacy decision in favor of the United Kingdom, enabling data transfers from EU member states to the United Kingdom without additional safeguards. However, the UK adequacy decision will automatically expire in June 2025 unless the European Commission re-assesses and renews or extends that decision. In September 2021, the United Kingdom government launched a consultation on its proposals for wide-ranging reform of United Kingdom data protection laws following Brexit and the response to this consultation was published in June 2022. There is a risk that any material changes which are made to the United Kingdom data protection regime could result in the European Commission reviewing the United Kingdom adequacy decision, and the UK United Kingdom losing its adequacy decision if the European Commission deems the United Kingdom to no longer provide adequate protection for personal data.

Although we work to comply with applicable laws, regulations and standards, our contractual obligations and other legal obligations, these requirements are evolving and may be modified, interpreted and applied in an inconsistent manner from one jurisdiction to another, and may conflict with one another or other legal obligations with which we must comply. Various federal, state and foreign legislative or regulatory bodies may enact new or additional laws and regulations concerning privacy, data-retention and data-protection issues, including laws or regulations mandating disclosure to domestic or international law enforcement bodies, which could adversely impact our business or our reputation with customers. For example, some countries have adopted laws mandating that certain personal information regarding customers in their country be maintained solely in their country. Having to maintain local data centers and redesign product, service and business operations to limit processing of personal information to within individual countries could increase our operating costs significantly. Any failure, or perceived failure, by us to comply with federal, state or international privacy, data-retention or data-protection-related laws, regulations, orders or industry self-regulatory principles could result in proceedings or actions against us by governmental entities or others, a loss of customer confidence, damage to our brand and reputation and a loss of customers, any of which could have an adverse effect on our business.

Evolving expectations around corporate responsibility practices, specifically related to environmental, social and governance (“ESG”) matters, may expose us to reputational and other risks.

Investors, stockholders, customers, suppliers and other third parties are increasingly focusing on ESG and corporate social responsibility endeavors and reporting. Companies that do not adapt to or comply with the evolving investor or stakeholder expectations and standards, or which are perceived to have not responded appropriately, may suffer from reputational damage and result in the business, financial condition and/or stock price of a company being materially and adversely affected. Further, this increased focus on ESG issues may result in new regulations and/or third-party requirements that could adversely impact our business, or certain shareholders reducing or eliminating their holdings of our stock. Additionally, an allegation or perception that we have not taken sufficient action in these areas could negatively harm our reputation.

ITEM 1B. UNRESOLVED STAFF COMMENTS

Not applicable.

ITEM 2. PROPERTIES

FACILITIES

Our headquarters are located in Redwood City, California, where we lease approximately 77,300 square feet of office and laboratory space.

Our lease ("RWC Lease") with Metropolitan Life Insurance Company ("MetLife") includes approximately 28,200 square feet of space located at 200 and 220 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, California (the "200/220 Penobscot Space"), approximately 37,900 square feet of space located at 400 Penobscot Drive, Redwood City, California (the "400 Penobscot Space") (the 200/220 Penobscot Space and the 400 Penobscot Space are collectively referred to as the "Penobscot Space"), and approximately 11,200 square feet of space located at 501 Chesapeake Drive, Redwood City, California (the "Chesapeake Space").

We entered into the initial lease with MetLife for our facilities in Redwood City in 2004 and the RWC lease has been amended multiple times since then to adjust the leased space and terms of the RWC Lease. In February 2019, we entered into an Eighth Amendment to the RWC Lease (the "Eighth Amendment") with MetLife with respect to the Penobscot Space and the 501 Chesapeake Space to extend the term of the RWC Lease for additional periods. Pursuant to the Eighth Amendment, the term of the lease of the Penobscot Space has been extended through May 2027. The lease term for the 501 Chesapeake Space has been extended to May 2029. We have one (1) option to extend the term of the lease for the Penobscot Space for five (5) years, and one (1) separate option to extend the term of the lease for the 501 Chesapeake Space for five (5) years.

In January 2021, we entered into a lease agreement with ARE-San Francisco No. 63, LLC ("ARE") to lease a portion of a facility comprising approximately 36,593 rentable square feet at 825 Industrial Road, San Carlos, California to serve as additional office and research and development laboratory space (the "San Carlos Space"). In December 2021, we commenced occupancy of the San Carlos Space. The lease term for the San Carlos Space is through the end of November 2031. We have one (1) option to extend the term of the lease for the San Carlos Space for five (5) years.

In May 2021, we entered into a short-term office lease with The Inside Source, Inc., to sublease approximately 3,313 square feet of office space in a building located at 985 Industrial Blvd. San Carlos, California. This lease expired in April 2022.

We believe that the facilities that we currently lease in Redwood City and San Carlos, California are adequate for our needs for the immediate future and that, should it be needed, additional space can be leased to accommodate any future growth.

ITEM 3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS

We are currently not a party to any material pending litigation or other material legal proceedings.

ITEM 4. MINE SAFETY DISCLOSURES

Not applicable.

PART II

ITEM 5. MARKET FOR REGISTRANT’S COMMON EQUITY, RELATED STOCKHOLDER MATTERS AND ISSUER PURCHASES OF EQUITY SECURITIES

MARKET INFORMATION

Our common stock is quoted on the Nasdaq Global Select Market ("Nasdaq"), under the symbol "CDXS."

As of February 22, 2023, there were approximately 125 stockholders of record. A substantially greater number of stockholders may be "street name" or beneficial holders, whose shares are held of record by banks, brokers and other financial institutions.

Dividend Policy

We have never declared or paid cash dividends on our common stock, and we currently do not plan to declare dividends on shares of our common stock in the foreseeable future. We expect to retain our future earnings, if any, for use in the operation and expansion of our business. In addition, unless waived, the terms of our Credit Facility prohibit us from paying any cash dividends or making other distributions. The payment of cash dividends in the future, if any, will be at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend upon such factors as earnings levels, capital requirements, our overall financial condition and any other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors.

Securities Authorized for Issuance under Equity Compensation Plans

The information required by this item concerning securities authorized for issuance under equity compensation plans is incorporated by reference from the information that will be set forth in the Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission in connection with the Annual Meeting of Stockholders to be held in 2023 (the "2023 Proxy Statement") under the heading "Executive Compensation—Equity Compensation Plan Information."

Stock Price Performance Graph

The following tabular information and graph compare our total common stock return with the total return for (i) the Nasdaq Composite Index and (ii) the Nasdaq Biotechnology Index for the period December 31, 2017 through December 31, 2022. The figures represented below assume an investment of $100 in our common stock at the closing price on December 31, 2017 and in the Nasdaq Composite Index and the Nasdaq Biotechnology Index on December 31, 2017 and the reinvestment of dividends into shares of common stock. The comparisons in the table and graph are required by the SEC and are not intended to forecast or be indicative of possible future performance of our common stock. The tabular information and graph shall not be deemed "soliciting material" or to be "filed" for purposes of Section 18 of the Exchange Act or otherwise subject to the liabilities under that Section, and shall not be deemed to be incorporated by reference into any of our filings under the Securities Act or the Exchange Act.


		December 31,
$100 investment in stock or index	Ticker	2017		2018		2019		2020		2021		2022
Codexis, Inc.	CDXS	$	100.00	$	200.00	$	191.50	$	261.44	$	374.49	$	55.81
Nasdaq Composite Total Return	XCMP	$	100.00	$	97.16	$	132.81	$	192.48	$	235.16	$	158.65
Nasdaq Biotechnology (Total Return) Index	XNBI	$	100.00	$	91.14	$	114.02	$	144.14	$	144.17	$	129.58

Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds

Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities

During the year ended December 31, 2022, we did not issue or sell any unregistered securities not previously disclosed in a Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q or in a Current Report on Form 8-K.

Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities

None.

ITEM 6. [RESERVED]

ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF

FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following management's discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our audited Consolidated Financial Statements and the related notes thereto included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the "Exchange Act"). These statements include, but are not limited to, expectations regarding our strategy, business plans, financial performance and developments relating to our industry. These statements are often identified by the use of words such as "may," "will," "expect," "believe," "anticipate," "intend," "could," "should," "estimate," or "continue," and similar expressions or variations. Such forward-looking statements are subject to risks, uncertainties and other factors that could cause actual results and the timing of certain events to differ materially from future results expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. Factors that could cause or contribute to such differences include, but are not limited to, those discussed in Part I, Item IA:"Risk Factors," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K and elsewhere in this report. The forward-looking statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K represent our views as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. We anticipate that subsequent events and developments will cause our views to change. However, while we may elect to update these forward-looking statements at some point in the future, we have no current intention of doing so except to the extent required by applicable law. You should, therefore, not rely on these forward-looking statements as representing our views as of any date subsequent to the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Business Overview

Recent Developments

Announcement of interim results from Phase 1 trial of CDX-7108 for Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (“EPI”)

On February 23, 2023, we and our partner, Nestlé Health Science announced interim results from a Phase 1 clinical trial of CDX-7108 for the treatment of EPI. Data from the proof-of-concept arm indicated improved lipid absorption when patients are administered CDX-7108 versus placebo. Importantly, no safety issues were noted in the 48 subjects that participated in the single ascending dose and multiple ascending dose portion of the study. We believe the interim data support further development of CDX-7018 in partnership with Nestlé Health Science, with potential for the initiation of a Phase 2 study in early 2024.

Presentation of pre-clinical data from the Fabry disease transgene program

On February 22, 2023, we announced that Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited (Takeda) presented pre-clinical data from the Fabry disease transgene program, part of its Strategic Collaboration and License Agreement with Codexis, at the 19th Annual WORLDSymposium™. The gene therapy candidate is being developed to encode the codon optimized, CodeEvolver® engineered -GAL enzyme, which is designed to have improved serum and lysosomal stability and a predicted reduced immunogenicity.

Strengthened management team and Board of Directors with new appointments

On January 23,2023, we announced the appointment of Sri Ryali as Chief Financial Officer and on December 20, 2022, we announced the appointment of H. Stewart Parker to our Board of Directors.

Recent Investing and Financing Activities

In March 2022, we entered into a Stock Purchase Agreement with seqWell Inc. ("seqWell"), a privately held biotechnology company, pursuant to which we purchased 1,000,000 shares of seqWell's Series C preferred stock for $5.0 million.

In May 2021, we filed a Registration Statement on Form S-3 with the SEC, that automatically became effective upon its filing, under which we may sell common stock, preferred stock, debt securities, warrants, purchase contracts, and units from time to time in one or more offerings. On the date of this filing, we also filed a post-effective amendment to that Registration Statement on Form S-3. Pursuant to that post-effective amendment, we registered an aggregate $200.0 million of securities. In May 2021, we entered into an Equity Distribution Agreement ("EDA") with Piper Sandler & Co ("PSC"), under which PSC, as our exclusive agent, at our discretion and at such times that we may determine from time to time, may sell over a three-year period from the execution of the EDA up to a maximum of $50.0 million of shares of our common stock. Under the terms of the EDA, PSC may sell the shares at market prices by any method that is deemed to be an "at the market offering" as defined in Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended. During the year ended December 31, 2022, no shares of our common stock were issued pursuant to the EDA.

In December 2020, we completed an underwritten public offering of 4,928,572 shares of our common stock at a public offering price of $17.50 per share. The net proceeds to us were approximately $80.8 million after deducting offering costs, underwriting discounts and commissions and other offering expenses of $5.5 million.

In June 2020, we entered into a Stock Purchase Agreement with MAI pursuant to which we purchased 1,587,050 shares of MAI's Series A preferred stock for $1.0 million. In connection with the transaction, John Nicols, our former President and Chief Executive Officer, also joined MAI’s board of directors. Concurrently with our initial equity investment, we entered into the MAI Agreement pursuant to which performed services utilizing our CodeEvolver® protein engineering platform technology to improve DNA polymerase enzymes in exchange for compensation in the form of additional shares of MAI's Series A preferred stock. In April 2021, we purchased an additional 1,000,000 shares of MAI's Series A preferred stock for $0.6 million. In September 2021, we purchased 9,198,423 shares of MAI's Series B preferred stock for $7.0 million. As of December 31, 2022, we have 18,292,369 shares of MAI's Series A and B preferred stock that we have earned or purchased since executing the Stock Purchase Agreement with MAI.

In November 2020, we invested $1.0 million in Arzeda Corp., a privately-held computational protein design company that focuses on computational approaches to designing novel enzyme functionality, and received a convertible subordinated note issued by Arzeda Corp. In July 2021, we converted the non-marketable debt security with a carrying value of $1.3 million into 207,070 shares of Series B-2 preferred stock of Arzeda Corp.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

For information on recent accounting pronouncements, see Note 2, "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies" in the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements set forth in Item 8 of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Business Update Regarding COVID-19

In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic and recommended containment and mitigation measures worldwide. The spread of COVID-19 has affected segments of the global economy and may affect our operations, including the potential interruption of our supply chain. We are monitoring this situation closely, and although operations have not been materially affected by the COVID-19 outbreak to date, the ultimate duration and severity of the outbreak and its impact on the economic environment and our business is uncertain.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, we have received purchase orders from Pfizer Inc. (“Pfizer”) for large quantities of our proprietary enzyme product, CDX-616, for use by Pfizer in the manufacture of a critical intermediate for its proprietary API, nirmatrelvir, used by Pfizer in combination with the API ritonavir, as its PAXLOVID™ (nirmatrelvir tablets; ritonavir tablets) product for the treatment of COVID-19 infections in humans. We are a party to an Enzyme Supply Agreement with Pfizer Ireland Pharmaceuticals, a subsidiary of Pfizer, Inc. (the “Pfizer Supply Agreement”), covering the manufacture, sale and purchase of CDX-616 for use by Pfizer in the manufacture of nirmatrelvir. Under the terms of the Pfizer Supply Agreement, Pfizer paid us a fee of $25.9 million in August 2022 which is creditable against future orders of CDX-616 used to manufacture its PAXLOVID™. The sale of CDX-616 to Pfizer had a substantial impact on our revenue for the year ended December 31, 2022. Revenues in 2023 and in future years from our sales of CDX-616 to Pfizer and other potential customers (including sublicensees of Pfizer technology from The Medicine Patent Pool) are subject to a number of factors which are outside of our control and could reduce or eliminate our sales of CDX-616, and therefore materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial conditions.

For additional information on the various risks posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, please read Item 1A. Risk Factors included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following table shows the amounts from our consolidated statements of operations for the periods presented (in thousands, except percentages):


	Year Ended December 31,						% of Total Revenues
	2022		2021		2020		2022		2021		2020
Revenues:
Product revenue	$	116,676	$	70,657	$	30,220	84	%	67	%	44	%
Research and development revenue	21,914		34,097		38,836		16	%	33	%	56	%
Total revenues	138,590		104,754		69,056		100	%	100	%	100	%
Costs and operating expenses:
Cost of product revenue	38,033		22,209		13,742		27	%	21	%	20	%
Research and development	80,099		55,919		44,185		58	%	53	%	64	%
Selling, general and administrative	52,172		49,323		35,049		38	%	47	%	51	%
Restructuring charges	3,167		—		—		2	%	—	%	—	%
Total costs and operating expenses	173,471		127,451		92,976		125	%	121	%	135	%
Loss from operations	(34,881)		(22,697)		(23,920)		(25)	%	(21)	%	(35)	%
Interest income	1,441		459		405		1	%	—	%	1	%
Other income (expense), net	124		1,148		(156)		—	%	1	%	—	%
Loss before income taxes	(33,316)		(21,090)		(23,671)		(24)	%	(20)	%	(34)	%
Provision for income taxes	276		189		339		—	%	—	%	—	%
Net loss	$	(33,592)	$	(21,279)	$	(24,010)	(24)	%	(20)	%	(34)	%

Revenues

Our revenues consist of product revenue and research and development revenue as follows:

•Product revenue consist of sales of biocatalysts, pharmaceutical intermediates, and Codex® biocatalyst panels and kits.

•Research and development revenue include license, technology access and exclusivity fees, research services fees, milestone payments, royalties, optimization and screening fees.

Revenues are as follows (in thousands, except percentages):


							Change
	Year Ended December 31,						2022				2021
	2022		2021		2020		$		%		$		%
Product revenue	$	116,676	$	70,657	$	30,220	$	46,019	65	%	$	40,437	134	%
Research and development revenue	21,914		34,097		38,836		(12,183)		(36)	%	(4,739)		(12)	%
Total revenues	$	138,590	$	104,754	$	69,056	$	33,836	32	%	$	35,698	52	%

Revenues typically fluctuate on a quarterly basis due to the variability in our customers' manufacturing schedules and the timing of our customers' clinical trials. In addition, we have limited internal capacity to manufacture enzymes. As a result, we are dependent upon the performance and capacity of third party manufacturers for the commercial scale manufacturing of the enzymes used in our pharmaceutical and fine chemicals business.

We accept purchase orders for deliveries covering periods from one day up to 14 months from the date on which the order is placed. However, some of our purchase orders can be revised or cancelled by the customer without penalty. Considering these industry practices and our experience, we do not believe the total of customer purchase orders outstanding (backlog) provides meaningful information that can be relied on to predict actual sales for future periods.

2022 compared to 2021

Total revenues increased by $33.8 million in 2022 to $138.6 million, as compared to 2021. The increase was driven by growth in product revenue of $46.0 million, or 65%, but partially offset by a decrease in research and development revenue of $12.2 million, or 36%.

Product revenue, which consist primarily of sales of biocatalysts, pharmaceutical intermediates, and Codex® biocatalyst panels and kits, was $116.7 million in 2022, an increase of 65% compared with $70.7 million in 2021. The increase in product revenue was primarily due to $40.9 million higher revenue from Pfizer sales related to the purchase of CDX-616.

Research and development revenue decreased by $12.2 million in 2022 to $21.9 million, or 36% compared with $34.1 million in 2021, primarily due to lower license fees from Takeda, decreased revenue from milestone payments received from GSK in 2021 and lower research and development fees from other existing collaboration agreements being recognized in 2022 as compared to the prior year. A portion of our research and development revenue in 2022 and 2021 was paid to us by MAI in the form of additional shares of MAI Series A and Series B preferred stock. We received an aggregate of 1,587,049 and 3,491,505 shares of MAI's Series A and B preferred stock for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

2021 compared to 2020

Total revenues increased by $35.7 million in 2021 to $104.8 million, as compared to 2020. The increase was driven by growth in product revenue of $40.4 million, or 134%, but partially offset by a decrease in research and development revenue of $4.7 million, or 12%.

Product revenues were $70.7 million in 2021, an increase of 134% compared with $30.2 million in 2020. The increase in product revenue was primarily due to $34.5 million in revenue from Pfizer and an increase in demand for enzymes used in the manufacture of branded pharmaceutical products.

Research and development revenue decreased by $4.7 million in 2021 to $34.1 million, or 12% compared with $38.8 million in 2020, primarily due to lower license and research and development fees from Takeda and lower revenues from Novartis recognized in 2021 compared to the prior year, which was partially offset by higher license fees from other existing collaboration agreements. A portion of our research and development revenue in 2020 was paid to us by MAI in the form of additional shares of MAI Series A preferred stock. We received an aggregate of 714,171 shares of MAI's Series A preferred stock for the year ended December 31, 2020.

Costs and Operating Expenses (in thousands, except percentages):


							Change
	Year Ended December 31,						2022				2021
	2022		2021		2020		$		%		$		%
Cost of product revenue	$	38,033	$	22,209	$	13,742	$	15,824	71	%	$	8,467	62	%
Research and development	80,099		55,919		44,185		24,180		43	%	11,734		26	%
Selling, general and administrative	52,172		49,323		35,049		2,849		6	%	14,274		41	%
Restructuring charges	3,167		—		—		$	3,167	100	%	$	—	—	%
Total costs and operating expenses	$	173,471	$	127,451	$	92,976	$	46,020	36	%	$	34,475	37	%

Costs of Product Revenue and Product Gross Margin

Our product revenues are derived entirely from our Performance Enzymes segment. Revenues from the Novel Biotherapeutics segment are only from collaborative research and development activities.

The following table shows the amounts of our product revenue, cost of product revenue, product gross profit and product gross margin from our consolidated statements of operations (in thousands, except percentages):


	Year Ended December 31,						Change				Year Ended December 31,						Change
	2022			2021			$		%		2021			2020			$		%
Product revenue	$	116,676		$	70,657		$	46,019	65	%	$	70,657		$	30,220		$	40,437	134	%
Cost of product revenue (1)	38,033			22,209			15,824		71	%	22,209			13,742			8,467		62	%
Product gross profit	$	78,643		$	48,448		$	30,195	62	%	$	48,448		$	16,478		$	31,970	194	%
Product gross margin (%) (2)	67		%	69		%					69		%	55		%

(1) Cost of product revenue comprises both internal and third-party fixed and variable costs, including materials and supplies, labor, facilities and other overhead costs associated with our product revenue.

(2) Product gross margin is used as a performance measure to provide additional information regarding our results of operations on a consolidated basis.

2022 compared to 2021

Cost of product revenue increased by $15.8 million in 2022 to $38.0 million, as compared to 2021. The increase was primarily due to a higher volume of product sales and variations in product mix. Product gross margins decreased to 67% in 2022 as compared to 69% in 2021, primarily due to variations in product mix, variation in prices per volume sold and higher shipping costs. Some of these cost increases are a result of the impact of inflation and supply chain pressures seen in 2022.

2021 compared to 2020

Cost of product revenue increased by $8.5 million in 2021 to $22.2 million, as compared to 2020. The increase was primarily due to a higher volume of product sales and variations in product mix. The product gross margin increased to 69% in 2021 as compared to 55% in 2020, primarily due to the sale of higher margin branded products.

Research and Development Expenses

Research and development expenses consist of costs incurred for internal projects as well as collaborative research and development activities. These costs primarily consist of (i) employee-related costs, which include salaries and other personnel-related expenses (including stock-based compensation), (ii) various allocable expenses, which include occupancy-related costs, supplies, depreciation of facilities and laboratory equipment, and (iii) external costs. Research and development expenses are expensed when incurred.

2022 compared to 2021

Research and development expenses were $80.1 million in 2022 compared to $55.9 million in 2021, an increase of $24.2 million, or 43%. The increase was primarily due to an increase of $7.4 million in costs associated with higher headcount, $4.8 million in higher facilities and repair and maintenance expenses, $5.3 million increase in outside services and Chemistry, Manufacturing and Controls (“CMC”) and regulatory expenses, $2.6 million in higher lab supplies, $2.1 million in higher depreciation expenses, $1.1 million in higher stock-based compensation expenses and $0.7 million in higher allocable expenses. Some of these cost increases are a result of the impact of inflation seen in 2022.

2021 compared to 2020

Research and development expenses were $55.9 million in 2021 compared to $44.2 million in 2020, an increase of $11.7 million, or 26%. The increase was primarily due to $7.6 million in costs associated with higher headcount, $0.8 million in higher stock-based compensation expenses, $2.6 million in higher lab supplies, $2.2 million in higher allocable expenses, $1.1 million increase in outside services, and $1.0 million in higher depreciation expenses, which was partially offset by a $3.7 million decrease in costs associated with outside services related to CMC and regulatory expenses.

Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

Selling, general and administrative expenses consist of employee-related costs, which include salaries and other personnel-related expenses (including stock-based compensation), hiring and training costs, consulting and outside services expenses (including audit and legal counsel related costs), marketing costs, building lease costs, and depreciation and amortization expenses.

2022 compared to 2021

Selling, general and administrative expenses were $52.2 million in 2022 compared to $49.3 million in 2021, an increase of $2.8 million, or 6%. The increase was primarily due to an increase of $6.0 million in costs associated with higher headcount, $1.8 million in higher stock-based compensation costs, $0.8 million in higher outside and temporary services, which was partially offset by a decrease of $3.5 million in allocable expenses due to higher expenses allocated to research and development activities in 2022 and $3.3 million in lower legal fees. Some of these cost increases are a result of the impact of inflation seen in 2022.

2021 compared to 2020

Selling, general and administrative expenses were $49.3 million in 2021 compared to $35.0 million in 2020, an increase of $14.3 million, or 41%. The increase was primarily due to an increase of $6.6 million in costs associated with higher headcount to support our growth, $3.1 million in higher stock-based compensation costs, $5.1 million increase in legal fees, $1.1 million in higher outside and temporary services, $1.0 million in higher facilities cost, and $0.4 million increase in allowance for credit losses, which was partially offset by a decrease of $3.0 million in allocable expenses due to higher expenses allocated to research and development activities in 2021.

Restructuring Charges

Restructuring charges in 2022 consist of one-time employee severance and other termination benefits due to a workforce reduction plan that occurred in the fourth quarter of 2022.

Interest Income and Other Income (Expense), net (in thousands, except percentages):


							Change
	Year Ended December 31,						2022				2021
	2022		2021		2020		$		%		$		%
Interest income	$	1,441	$	459	$	405	$	982	214	%	$	54	13	%
Other income (expense), net	124		1,148		(156)		(1,024)		89	%	1,304		836	%
Total other income (expense), net	$	1,565	$	1,607	$	249	$	(42)	(3)	%	$	1,358	545	%

Interest Income

Interest income increased by $1.0 million in 2022 compared to 2021, primarily due to higher average interest rates on cash balances and was partially offset by earned interest income on a non-marketable debt security in the prior year. Interest income increased by $0.1 million in 2021 compared to 2020, primarily due to earned interest income on a non-marketable debt security, which was partially offset by a reduction in interest income from lower average interest rates on lower average cash balances

Other Income (Expense), net

Other income (expense), net, decreased by $1.0 million in 2022 compared to 2021, primarily due to a higher gain from remeasurement on the carrying value of our investment in MAI in the prior year compared to this year. Other income (expense), net increased by $1.3 million in 2021 compared to 2020, primarily due to a $1.0 million gain from remeasurement on the carrying value of our investment in MAI.

Provision for Income Taxes (in thousands, except percentages):


							Change
	Year Ended December 31,						2022				2021
	2022		2021		2020		$		%		$	%
Provision for income taxes	$	276	$	189	$	339	$	87	46	%	(150)	(44)	%

The provision for income taxes for 2022 was primarily due to the income tax withholding imposed by foreign taxing authorities on income earned in certain countries outside of the Unites Stated and remitted to the United States and the accrual of interest and penalties on historic uncertain tax positions, as well as current year state income taxes.

Starting in 2022, changes to Internal Revenue Code Section 174 made by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 no longer permit an immediate deduction for research and development expenditures in the tax year that such costs are incurred. As a result, the Company capitalized such costs in its 2022 income tax provision resulting in an increase in deferred tax assets and state income taxes. However, as we have recorded a full valuation allowance on our deferred tax assets, this did not have an impact on our net deferred tax assets.

The provision for income taxes in 2021 was primarily due to the income tax withholding imposed by foreign taxing authorities on income earned in certain countries outside of the Unites Stated and remitted to the United States and the accrual of interest and penalties on historic uncertain tax positions. The provision for income taxes in 2020 was primarily due to foreign withholding taxes on certain sales to non-U.S. customers.

Net Loss

Net loss for 2022 was $33.6 million, or a net loss per basic and diluted share of $0.51. This compared to a net loss of $21.3 million, or $0.33 per basic and diluted share for 2021. The increase in net loss was primarily related to lower research and development revenues and higher operating expenses.

Net loss for 2021 was $21.3 million, or a net loss per basic and diluted share of $0.33. This compared to a net loss of $24.0 million, or $0.40 per basic and diluted share for 2020. The decrease in net loss was primarily related to an increase in product revenue with higher margins, which was partially offset by higher operating expenses and lower research and development revenues.

Results of Operations by Segment (in thousands, except percentages)

Revenues by segment

Year Ended December 31, 2022

Year Ended December 31, 2021